विषय-सूची 

• आवश्यक जानकारी
  • सोया 
• अतिरिक्त सुझाव 
• पौध आधारित प्रोटीन पर शोध
  • जनसंख्या की प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं का आकलन 
  • खाद्य उपभोग मात्रा
    • प्रोटीन के लिए DRI निर्धारित करना 
    • महिलाओं का RDA पुरुषों के समान होता है 
    • प्रोटीन RDA की आलोचना
      • 60 वर्ष से अधिक आयु के लोगों के लिए प्रोटीन की आवश्यकताएँ 
      • एथलीटों की प्रोटीन की आवश्यकताएँ 
  • चयनित पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों में प्रोटीन और अमीनो एसिड की मात्रा
    • पादप खाद्य पदार्थों में लाइसिन के अच्छे स्रोत 
  • पौध आधारित प्रोटीन संतुलन अनुसंधान
    • वीगन लोगों पर नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययन 
    • पौध आधारित प्रोटीन का उपयोग करके नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययन 
    • पौध-आधारित आहार पर लोगों के सीरम एल्ब्यूमिन का अध्ययन 
    • वीगन लोगों पर क्रिएटिनिन क्लीयरेंस अध्ययन
      • पौध आधारित प्रोटीन संतुलन अनुसंधान का सारांश 
  • वीगन लोगों का अमीनो एसिड सेवन और रक्त स्तर
    • वीगन पुरुषों का अमीनो एसिड सेवन 
    • वीगन महिलाओं का अमीनो एसिड सेवन 
    • वीगन पुरुषों का अमीनो अम्ल प्लाज्मा स्तर 
    • आर्जिनिन और वीगन आहार 
  • परिशिष्ट अ: प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता मूल्यांकन
    • FAO ने 1989 में PDCAAS की अनुशंसा की 
    • FAO ने 2011 में DIAAS की अनुशंसा की 
    • DIAAS की आलोचना 
  • परिशिष्ट ब: DIAAS संदर्भ प्रोटीन 
  • परिशिष्ट स: मांसपेशी संश्लेषण अध्ययन
    • 10-दिवसीय वीगन आहार के दौरान मांसपेशी संश्लेषण 
    • गोमांस या पौध आधारित प्रोटीन युक्त भोजन के बाद मांसपेशी संश्लेषण
  • परिशिष्ट द: वीगन लोगों में घाव भरना 
  • ग्रंथसूची

आवश्यक जानकारी

“आपको प्रोटीन कहाँ से मिलता है?” आमतौर पर वीगन लोगों से पूछा जाने वाला पहला सवाल यही होता है। और इसका जवाब देना थोड़ा मुश्किल है क्योंकि लगभग सभी पौध खाद्य पदार्थों में प्रोटीन होता है। दूसरे शब्दों में, वीगन लोगों को लगभग हर चीज़ से प्रोटीन मिलता है! ज़्यादातर आहार में उच्च प्रोटीन वाले पौध खाद्य पदार्थों का सेवन ज़्यादातर वीगन लोगों को पर्याप्त प्रोटीन प्रदान करेगा (कुछ बलवान एथलीटों को छोड़कर, जिन्हें सर्वोत्तम परिणाम पाने के लिए अलग-अलग मात्रा में चीजों का उपभोग करना चाहिए)। जो कोई भी नियमित रूप से मांस और पनीर खाता है, उसे ज़्यादा प्रोटीन की आदत होती है और अगर आपको पशु उत्पादों को खाने का बहुत मन हो रहा है या वीगन आहार पर थकान महसूस हो रही है, तो ज़्यादा प्रोटीन लेना अक्सर इसका समाधान होता है। उच्च प्रोटीन वाले पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों में सीतन और अधिकांश वीगन मांस (हर भोजन में लगभग 15-25 ग्राम, लेकिन लेबल की जांच करें), टेम्पेह (प्रति 1/2 कप लगभग 15 ग्राम), टोफू (प्रति 1/2 कप लगभग 10-15 ग्राम), मूंगफली (प्रति 1/2 कप लगभग 15 ग्राम), बीन्स और मसूर (प्रति 1/2 कप लगभग 8 ग्राम), और सोया दूध (प्रति कप लगभग 7 ग्राम) शामिल हैं।

सोया 

प्रोटीन की बात करें तो, सोया खाद्य पदार्थ अपनी उच्च प्रोटीन मात्रा के कारण पारंपरिक रूप से कई वीगन आहारों का मुख्य हिस्सा रहे हैं। सोया के हानिकारक होने के बारे में कई मिथक हैं और कुछ लोग इससे कतराते हैं, लेकिन इस बात के पर्याप्त वैज्ञानिक प्रमाण हैं कि प्रतिदिन दो बार के आहार में सोया खाद्य पदार्थ खाना पूरी तरह से सुरक्षित हैं। अधिक मात्रा भी संभवतः सुरक्षित है, लेकिन उनका गहन अध्ययन नहीं किया गया है। एक वीगन आहार विशेषज्ञ, एथलीट और सोया पर वैज्ञानिक शोध से परिचित होने के नाते, मैं खुशी-खुशी जितना चाहूँ उतना सोया खा सकता हूँ! सोया पर सबसे मज़बूत शोध स्तन कैंसर के संबंध में रहा है और भारी प्रमाण यह है कि सोया स्तन कैंसर के जोखिम को कम कर सकता है। इस बात के भी प्रमाण हैं कि सोया प्रोस्टेट कैंसर और हृदय रोग के जोखिम को कम कर सकता है (एलडीएल कोलेस्ट्रॉल को कम करके)। आप हमारे लेख “सोया: मुख्य विवाद” में और अधिक पढ़ सकते हैं।

टोफू बहुत सारे व्यंजनों में इस्तेमाल किया जा सकने वाला सोयाफूड है जिसे कुछ एशियाई संस्कृतियों में सैकड़ों सालों से खाया जाता रहा है। आप इसे तलकर या बेक करके लगभग किसी भी नमकीन व्यंजन में मिला सकते हैं। आप इसे फ्रीज करके पिघलाकर भी चबाने लायक बना सकते हैं। टोफू का अपना कोई खास स्वाद नहीं होता, लेकिन यह जिन खाद्य पदार्थों के साथ मिलाया जाता है, उनका स्वाद ले लेता है। टोफू आमतौर पर कैल्शियम लवणों से बनाया जाता है और इसलिए वीगन लोगों के लिए कैल्शियम का एक समृद्ध स्रोत है (सामग्री में “कैल्शियम” के लिए पैकेजिंग पर देखें)। एक अन्य प्रकार का टोफू, सिल्कन टोफू, मुलायम बनावट वाला होता है और इसका उपयोग पुडिंग, मूस और क्रीम-आधारित पाई बनाने के लिए किया जाता है। सिल्कन टोफू अक्सर किराने की दुकान के बेकिंग सेक्शन में मिल जाता है। हालाँकि ज़्यादातर वीगन सोयाफूड खाते हैं, लेकिन वीगन होने के लिए आपको सोयाफूड खाने की ज़रूरत नहीं है क्योंकि कई अन्य उच्च-प्रोटीन वाले खाद्य पदार्थ भी उपलब्ध हैं। लेकिन जब तक आपको सोया से कोई विशेष एलर्जी न हो, तब तक कोई कारण नहीं है कि आप दुनिया भर के लाखों अन्य लोगों, वीगन और मांसाहारी लोगों की तरह इसका आनंद न ले सकें।

अतिरिक्त सुझाव

पर्याप्त प्रोटीन सुनिश्चित करने के लिए, वीगन लोगों को प्रतिदिन अपने 3-4 आहार में उच्च-प्रोटीन वाले खाद्य पदार्थ खाने चाहिए जो अमीनो एसिड लाइसिन के भी अच्छे स्रोत हैं। नीचे प्रोटीन युक्त खाद्य पदार्थों की एक सूची दी गई है जिनमें से आप चुन सकते हैं (सूचीबद्ध वज़न एकदम तैयार भोजन एक बार खाने के लिए हैं): 

• फलियाँ – 1/2 कप पकी हुई
  • बीन्स – सफेद चना, राजमा (125-150 ग्राम) 
  • मसूर की दाल (100 ग्राम) 
  • मटर – दाल (100 ग्राम) या हरी मटर (80 ग्राम) 
  • सोयाफ़ूड – कच्चा सोयाबीन (80 ग्राम), 
  • टोफू (125 ग्राम), 
  • टेम्पेह (165 ग्राम), 
  • सोया दूध (1 कप या 250 मिलीलीटर), 
  • सोया मीट (85 ग्राम) 
  • मूंगफली – 1/4 कप (35-40 ग्राम) 
• सीतान – 85 ग्राम
• क्विनोआ – 1 कप पका हुआ (185 ग्राम) 
• पिस्ता – 1/4 कप (30 ग्राम) 
• कद्दू के बीज – 1/4 कप भुने हुए (35 ग्राम)

जो लोग रोज़ाना व्यायाम नहीं करते, उनके लिए फलियां, सीताफल, क्विनोआ, पिस्ता या कद्दू के बीज शामिल किए बिना लाइसिन की ज़रूरतों को पूरा करने वाला वीगन आहार तैयार करना मुश्किल है। 

व्यायाम करने वालों को कैलोरी की ज़रूरत ज़्यादा होती है, जिससे अन्य खाद्य पदार्थों के ज़रिए लाइसिन की ज़रूरत पूरी करना आसान हो जाता है। खिलाड़ियों को ऊपर बताई गई मात्रा से कुछ ज़्यादा प्रोटीन की ज़रूरत होगी, लेकिन यह उनके व्यक्तिगत खेल और प्रशिक्षण पर निर्भर करेगा। अधिक जानकारी के लिए स्पोर्ट्स न्यूट्रिशन देखें। 

इस बात के प्रमाण हैं कि जैसे-जैसे लोगों की उम्र बढ़ती है, उन्हें अपनी कैलोरी में प्रोटीन की मात्रा ज़्यादा चाहिए होती है; 60 वर्ष से अधिक उम्र के लोगों को ऊपर बताए गए उच्च-प्रोटीन वाले खाद्य पदार्थों को अपने भोजन का एक बड़ा हिस्सा बनाने पर ध्यान देना चाहिए। 

जो वीगन अपना वज़न बनाए रखने के लिए पर्याप्त कैलोरी नहीं खाते, उन्हें अपने आहार में उच्च-प्रोटीन वाले खाद्य पदार्थों को ज़्यादा शामिल करने का प्रयास करना चाहिए।

पौध आधारित प्रोटीन पर शोध 

प्रोटीन अमीनो एसिड की श्रृंखलाओं से बनते हैं। कुछ अमीनो एसिड शरीर द्वारा बनाए जा सकते हैं—आमतौर पर अन्य अमीनो एसिड से—लेकिन कुछ नहीं बनाए जा सकते। जो नहीं बन सकते उन्हें आवश्यक या अपरिहार्य कहा जाता है। 

क्योंकि कुछ अमीनो एसिड आवश्यक होते हैं, इसलिए अमीनो एसिड की आवश्यकताएँ प्रोटीन की आवश्यकताओं जितनी ही महत्वपूर्ण हैं। लेकिन चूँकि आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड अमेरिकियों के औसत आहार में काफी हद तक एकसमान मात्रा में पाए जाते हैं, इसलिए प्रोटीन के लिए प्रतिदिन की आवश्यक मात्रा (आरडीए) अमीनो एसिड की आवश्यकताओं को भी पूरा करता है। 

एक आम धारणा यह है कि अधिकांश पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों में कम से कम एक आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड पूरी तरह से अनुपस्थित होता है, लेकिन सच्चाई यह है कि सभी पौध आधारित प्रोटीन में प्रत्येक आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड की कुछ मात्रा होती है। सामान्य नियम के अनुसार, फलियों में आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड मेथियोनीन कम होता है जबकि अधिकांश अन्य पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों में लाइसिन कम होता है। हालाँकि, सामान्य तौर पर, अधिकांश वीगन लोगों के लिए केवल लाइसिन ही चिंता का विषय हो सकता है क्योंकि लगभग सभी वीगन स्वाभाविक रूप से मेथियोनीन से भरपूर खाद्य पदार्थ खाते हैं।

1970 के दशक की शुरुआत में, फ्रांसेस मूर लैप ने “डाइट फॉर अ स्मॉल प्लैनेट” नामक एक पुस्तक लिखी, जिसने प्रत्येक भोजन में पौध आधारित प्रोटीन को मिलाकर आवश्यक अमीनो अम्लों का संतुलन बनाने और एक संपूर्ण प्रोटीन बनाने के विचार को लोकप्रिय बनाया। विशेष रूप से, फलियों और अनाजों को मिलाने से यह सुनिश्चित होता है कि वीगन व्यक्ति को प्रत्येक भोजन में लाइसिन और मेथियोनीन दोनों प्राप्त हों। लेकिन अब हम जानते हैं कि वीगन लोगों को संपूर्ण प्रोटीन बनाने के लिए अलग-अलग भोजन में प्रोटीन को मिलाने की चिंता करने की ज़रूरत नहीं है क्योंकि हमारा लीवर आवश्यकतानुसार उपयोग के लिए आवश्यक अमीनो अम्लों का भंडारण करता है। 2009 में अमेरिकन डायटेटिक एसोसिएशन के वीगन आहार को लेकर लिखे पत्र में कहा गया था: 

विभिन्न प्रकार के पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों का सेवन करने और ऊर्जा की ज़रूरतों को पूरा करने पर पौध आधारित प्रोटीन की आवश्यकताओं की पूर्ति हो सकती है। शोध बताते हैं कि दिन भर में खाए जाने वाले विभिन्न प्रकार के पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थ सभी आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड प्रदान कर सकते हैं और स्वस्थ वयस्कों में पर्याप्त नाइट्रोजन प्राप्त करना और उसका उपयोग सुनिश्चित कर सकते हैं, इसलिए अलग से सप्लीमेंट के रूप में प्रोटीन को उसी आहार में लेने की आवश्यकता नहीं होती है।

वास्तव में, प्रोटीन सप्लीमेंट को अपने मुख्य आहार के साथ लेना वीगन लोगों के लिए प्रतिकूल हो सकता है। डॉ. अन्ना बोरेक बताती हैं कि कैसे प्रोटीन से भरपूर खाद्य पदार्थों में सभी आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड की मात्रा प्रोटीन के सप्लीमेंट के रूप में आमतौर पर इस्तेमाल किए जाने वाले खाद्य पदार्थों के संयोजन की तुलना में अधिक होती है (क्या “सप्लीमेंट” वाले पौध आधारित प्रोटीन के संयोजन उचित है?, 2024)।

जनसंख्या की प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं का आकलन

प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं के बारे में चर्चाएँ आमतौर पर तीन अलग-अलग तर्कों पर केंद्रित होती हैं: 

1. प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता सूचकांक
2. मांसपेशी संश्लेषण अध्ययन 
3. प्रोटीन संतुलन अध्ययन 

प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता सूचकांक मुख्यतः कुपोषण के जोखिम वाली जनसंख्या के लिए प्रासंगिक है, जबकि मांसपेशी विकास अध्ययन मुख्यतः एथलीटों के लिए प्रासंगिक हैं। प्रोटीन संतुलन अध्ययन, एक सुपोषित जनसंख्या की प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं का आकलन करने के लिए सबसे प्रासंगिक अध्ययन हैं। 

हमने परिशिष्ट A: प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता स्कोरिंग में प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता सूचकांक पर गहन चर्चा की है, जिसमें प्रोटीन दक्षता अनुपात (PER), प्रोटीन पाचन-आधारित सही अमीनो एसिड स्कोर (PDCAAS), और पाचन योग्य अपरिहार्य अमीनो एसिड स्कोर (DIAAS) की व्याख्याएँ शामिल हैं। 

हमने अपने लेख, “वीगन लोगों के लिए वेटलिफ्टिंग” में मांसपेशी विकास और पौध-आधारित आहारों पर चर्चा की है, और परिशिष्ट C: मांसपेशी विकास अध्ययन में एक ऐसे अध्ययन पर चर्चा की है जो खिलाड़ियों के पोषण के संदर्भ में नहीं किया गया था। 

यहाँ, हम सामान्य वीगन जनसंख्या की प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं पर चर्चा करते हुए प्रोटीन संतुलन अध्ययनों पर ध्यान केंद्रित करेंगे।

खाद्य उपभोग मात्रा

यूनाइटेड स्टेट्स इंस्टीट्यूट ऑफ मेडिसिन (IOM) आहार के सेवन का संदर्भ (DRI) निर्धारित करता है। प्रोटीन के लिए DRI “शरीर के वजन” के ग्राम प्रति किलोग्राम प्रति दिन (g/kg/day) में दिया जाता है (IOM, 2005)। वसा द्रव्यमान को बनाए रखने के लिए अधिक प्रोटीन की आवश्यकता नहीं होती है, इसलिए “शरीर के वजन” का अर्थ आमतौर पर “आदर्श” या “स्वस्थ” शरीर के वजन के रूप में लिया जाता है, भले ही यह DRI में निर्दिष्ट न हो। 

नीचे दी गई तालिका प्रोटीन के लिए DRI सूचीबद्ध करती है। तालिका में अमीनो एसिड, लाइसिन के लिए DRI भी शामिल है, क्योंकि लाइसिन औसत वीगन आहार में सबसे कम प्रचुर मात्रा में पाया जाने वाला आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड होता है; यदि कोई वीगन लाइसिन की अपनी ज़रूरतों को पूरा कर रहा है, तो संभवतः वह सभी आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड की अपनी ज़रूरतों को पूरा कर रहा है।

प्रोटीन और लाइसीन के लिए अमेरिकी लोगों के लिए आहार के सेवन का संदर्भ

*प्रति किग्रा शरीर के वजन से

नीचे दी गई तालिका में प्रोटीन और आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड के लिए वयस्क आरडीए सूचीबद्ध है।

प्रोटीन और अमीनो एसिड के लिए वयस्क व्यक्ति का RDA

PRO-प्रोटीन, HIS-हिस्टीडीन, ISO-आइसो ल्यूसीन, LEU-ल्यूसीन, LYS-लाईसीन, MET+CYS-मेथोनोइन और सिस्टीन, PHE+TYR-फिनायलएलनीन और टायरोसीन, THR-थ्रीयोनीन, TRP-ट्रिप्टोहन, VAL-वेलीन 

प्रोटीन के लिए डीआरआई निर्धारित करना

प्रोटीन के लिए डीआरएस निर्धारित करने में, आईओएम ने नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययनों, विशेष रूप से रैंड एट अल. (2003) द्वारा 2003 में किए गए मेटा-विश्लेषण पर भरोसा किया। 

नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययनों का उपयोग इसलिए किया जाता है क्योंकि नाइट्रोजन प्रोटीन का एक घटक है और अन्य मैक्रोन्यूट्रिएंट्स (जैसे, वसा, कार्बोहाइड्रेट और अल्कोहल) में नहीं पाया जाता है। नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययन यह मापते हैं कि कोई व्यक्ति कितना नाइट्रोजन खाता है और फिर उसमें से मूत्र, मल, बाल, पसीने आदि के माध्यम से उसके द्वारा खोई गई नाइट्रोजन की मात्रा घटाते हैं। यदि वे जितना खाते हैं उससे अधिक नाइट्रोजन खोते हैं, तो वे ऋणात्मक नाइट्रोजन संतुलन में हैं और उन्हें अधिक प्रोटीन की आवश्यकता होती है। यदि वे जितना खाते हैं उतना ही खोते हैं, तो वे नाइट्रोजन संतुलन में हैं और अपनी आवश्यकताओं को पूरा करने के लिए पर्याप्त प्रोटीन प्राप्त कर रहे हैं।

आईओएम ने निर्धारित किया है कि 19-50 वर्ष की आयु के औसत वयस्क के लिए प्रोटीन की अनुमानित औसत आवश्यकता (ईएआर) 0.66 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन है (आईओएम, 2005)। उन्होंने ईएआर को बढ़ाकर आहार के सेवन का संदर्भ (आरडीए) 0.8 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन निर्धारित किया, जिसका उद्देश्य 97-98% आबादी की ज़रूरतों को पूरा करना है। 

महिलाओं का आरडीए पुरुषों के समान ही है 

यह देखते हुए कि महिलाओं का दुबला शरीर द्रव्यमान औसतन पुरुषों की तुलना में कम होता है, यह आश्चर्यजनक हो सकता है कि प्रोटीन (और अमीनो एसिड) के लिए उनका आरडीए समान हो। आरडीए निर्धारित करते समय, आईओएम कहता है (आईओएम, 2005, पृष्ठ 644):

हालाँकि आँकड़े दर्शाते हैं कि महिलाओं को प्रति किलोग्राम शरीर भार के लिए पुरुषों की तुलना में नाइट्रोजन की कम आवश्यकता होती है, यह सांख्यिकीय रूप से तभी महत्वपूर्ण था जब सभी अध्ययनों को शामिल किया गया था, लेकिन तब नहीं जब विश्लेषण प्राथमिक आँकड़ों तक सीमित था। यह अंतर पुरुषों और महिलाओं की शारीरिक संरचना में अंतर के कारण हो सकता है, जहाँ महिलाओं और पुरुषों में क्रमशः औसतन 28 और 15 प्रतिशत वसा द्रव्यमान होता है। दुबले शरीर भार को नियंत्रित करने पर, प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं में कोई लिंग अंतर नहीं पाया गया। हालाँकि, लिंगों के बीच अंतर के अनिश्चित महत्व को देखते हुए, पुरुषों और महिलाओं दोनों के लिए शरीर भार के आधार पर एक ही प्रोटीन EAR चुना गया है।

प्रोटीन आरडीए की आलोचना 

टोरंटो स्थित द हॉस्पिटल फॉर सिक चिल्ड्रन (एलांगो, 2010) के शोधकर्ताओं के एक समूह का तर्क है कि प्रोटीन के लिए आरडीए निर्धारित करने की विधियाँ ज़रूरतों को कम करके आंकती हैं। लेखकों में से एक, डॉ. पॉल बी. पेनचार्ज़, मैक्रोन्यूट्रिएंट्स के लिए डीआरआई पर पैनल के सदस्य और मानव पोषण में प्रोटीन और अमीनो एसिड आवश्यकताओं पर संयुक्त विश्व स्वास्थ्य संगठन/एफएओ/संयुक्त राष्ट्र विश्वविद्यालय विशेषज्ञ परामर्श के सदस्य थे। एलांगो एट अल. लिखते हैं:

वयस्कों में प्रोटीन सेवन के लिए वर्तमान सिफ़ारिशें मुख्यतः मौजूदा नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययनों के पुनर्विश्लेषण पर आधारित हैं। नाइट्रोजन संतुलन तकनीक में अंतर्निहित पद्धतिगत सीमाएँ हैं, जो आवश्यकता अनुमान को कम करके आंकने की ओर ले जाती हैं। इसके अलावा, शून्य नाइट्रोजन संतुलन की पहचान के लिए एकल रैखिक समाश्रयण विश्लेषण का अनुप्रयोग उपयुक्त नहीं है क्योंकि नाइट्रोजन सेवन प्रतिक्रिया संबंध रैखिक नहीं है। इन चिंताओं के आधार पर, हमने द्वि-चरणीय रैखिक समाश्रयण विश्लेषण का उपयोग करके प्रकाशित नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययनों का पुनर्विश्लेषण किया। हमने वयस्कों में कुल प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं का निर्धारण करने के लिए [आइसोटोप-आधारित सूचक अमीनो अम्ल ऑक्सीकरण (IAAO)] विधि का भी प्रयोग किया। पुनर्विश्लेषण के आधार पर औसत और जनसंख्या-सुरक्षित सेवन क्रमशः 0.91 और 1.0 ग्राम प्रोटीन/किग्रा/दिन और IAAO विधि के आधार पर 0.93 और 1.2 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन निर्धारित किए गए। ये नए मान वर्तमान सिफ़ारिशों से लगभग 40% अधिक हैं, और इसलिए, वयस्क मनुष्यों में प्रोटीन सेवन के लिए सिफ़ारिशों का पुनर्मूल्यांकन करने की तत्काल आवश्यकता है।

शोधकर्ताओं का यह समूह औसत प्रोटीन की आवश्यकता 0.91–0.93 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन मानता है और 97%–98% आबादी के लिए प्रोटीन की मात्रा 1.0–1.2 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन है। 

60 वर्ष से अधिक आयु के लोगों के लिए प्रोटीन की आवश्यकताएँ 

कुछ शोधकर्ताओं का तर्क है कि 60 वर्ष से अधिक आयु के लोग मांसपेशियों और हड्डियों के रखरखाव में कम कुशल होते हैं और इसलिए 1.0–1.3 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन प्रोटीन पर अधिक स्वस्थ रहते हैं (गैफ़नी-स्टॉमबर्ग, 2009, पैडन-जोन्स, 2008, मोराइस, 2006), इनमें से कुछ शोध पशु कृषि व्यापार संगठनों द्वारा समर्थित या उनसे जुड़े हुए हैं (गैफ़नी-स्टॉमबर्ग, 2009, पैडन-जोन्स, 2008)।

कुछ परस्पर विरोधी शोध हैं। 92 पुरुषों (औसत आयु 73 वर्ष) पर किए गए एक यादृच्छिक परीक्षण में, 6 महीने तक प्रतिदिन 0.8 ग्राम/किग्रा प्रोटीन लेने वालों और प्रतिदिन 1.3 ग्राम/किग्रा प्रोटीन लेने वालों के बीच दुबले शरीर द्रव्यमान, मांसपेशियों के प्रदर्शन, शारीरिक कार्य, स्वास्थ्य या टेस्टोस्टेरोन के प्रति उपचय प्रतिक्रिया में कोई अंतर नहीं पाया गया (भसीन, 2018)। 

एथलीटों की प्रोटीन आवश्यकताएँ 

आर.डी.ए. में एथलीटों के लिए अधिक प्रोटीन की सिफारिश शामिल नहीं है। हालाँकि, पोषण और एथलेटिक प्रदर्शन पर एक संयुक्त स्थिति पत्र में, अमेरिकन कॉलेज ऑफ स्पोर्ट्स मेडिसिन, एकेडमी ऑफ न्यूट्रिशन एंड डायटेटिक्स, और कनाडा के आहार विशेषज्ञ एथलीटों के लिए 1.2 से 2.0 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन की सिफारिश करते हैं (थॉमस, 2016)। वे शक्ति और धीरज वाले एथलीटों के बीच अंतर नहीं करते हैं।

शक्ति-संपन्न एथलीटों में प्रोटीन सेवन के एक मेटा-विश्लेषण ने निष्कर्ष निकाला कि 0.25 ग्राम/किग्रा की खुराक में विभाजित 1.6 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन का दैनिक प्रोटीन सेवन, मांसपेशियों के प्रोटीन संश्लेषण के लिए पर्याप्त है (मॉर्टन, 2018)। 

वेट लिफ्टिंग करने वाले वीगन लोगों की प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं पर अधिक विस्तृत चर्चा के लिए, वीगन लोगों के लिए वेट लिफ्टिंग देखें। 

चयनित पादप खाद्य पदार्थों में प्रोटीन और अमीनो अम्ल की मात्रा 

हमारी ऑनलाइन स्प्रेडशीट, चयनित पादप खाद्य पदार्थों में प्रोटीन और अमीनो अम्ल की मात्रा देखें।

पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों में लाइसिन के अच्छे स्रोत 

संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका का खाद्य एवं औषधि प्रशासन (FDA) किसी पोषक तत्व के “अच्छे स्रोत” को दैनिक मूल्य (DRI) या दैनिक मूल्य (FDA, 2023) के 10% से 19% के रूप में परिभाषित करता है। चूँकि वीगन लोगों की प्रोटीन की ज़रूरतें मांसाहारी लोगों की तुलना में थोड़ी ज़्यादा हो सकती हैं, इसलिए हम मध्य बिंदु (14.5%) का उपयोग करेंगे। पुरुषों के लिए 70 किलोग्राम और महिलाओं के लिए 57 किलोग्राम (IOM, 2005, पृष्ठ 680) के संदर्भ शरीर के वजन का उपयोग करते हुए, लाइसिन के एक “अच्छे स्रोत” में प्रति सर्विंग 350 मिलीग्राम होता है। यहाँ लाइसिन के अच्छे स्रोतों की एक सूची दी गई है (ये वज़न रेडी-टू-ईट फ़ूड की एक सर्विंग के लिए हैं) और ऊपर हमारे अनुभाग, अतिरिक्त सुझाव, में सूचीबद्ध हैं।

पौध आधारित प्रोटीन संतुलन पर अध्ययन 

वीगन लोगों को कितने प्रोटीन की आवश्यकता होती है? आईओएम का कहना है, “निष्कर्षतः, उपलब्ध साक्ष्य उन वीगन लोगों के लिए अलग प्रोटीन आवश्यकता की सिफारिश का समर्थन नहीं करते जो पौध आधारित प्रोटीन के पूरक मिश्रण का सेवन करते हैं (पृष्ठ 662, आईओएम, 2005)।” 

लेकिन प्रमाण क्या है? 

वीगन लोगों पर नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययन

वीगन लोगों पर केवल एक नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययन किया गया है।

बार्थोलामे और जॉनस्टन (अमेरिका, 2023) ने 31.6 ± 6.2 वर्ष की आयु के 18 न्यूनतम सक्रिय, स्वस्थ पुरुष वीगन लोगों पर नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययन किया। उन्होंने उन्हें 0.8 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन प्रोटीन युक्त आहार दिया। 5 दिनों के बाद नाइट्रोजन संतुलन निम्न समीकरण का उपयोग करके निर्धारित किया गया: 

नाइट्रोजन संतुलन (ग्राम/दिन) = (प्रोटीन सेवन (ग्राम/दिन) / 6.25) − मूत्र यूरिया नाइट्रोजन (UUN) (ग्राम/दिन) − 4 ग्राम/दिन 

औसत निरपेक्ष नाइट्रोजन संतुलन −1.38 ± 1.22 ग्राम/दिन था, और सांख्यिकीय रूप से नाइट्रोजन संतुलन स्कोर शून्य (95% CI: −2.00 से −0.75) से कम था, जो दर्शाता है कि औसत वीगन नाइट्रोजन संतुलन में नहीं था। केवल 3 वीगन ही पॉजिटिव नाइट्रोजन संतुलन में पाए गए।

इस अध्ययन की कुछ सीमाएँ थीं। गैर-यूयूएन नाइट्रोजन हानियों को सीधे मापने के बजाय, उन्होंने 4 ग्राम/दिन के कारक का उपयोग किया। उन्होंने अनुकूलन आहार अवधि के लिए भी केवल 5 दिन का समय दिया, जो मानक प्रोटोकॉल के अनुसार कम है। 

एक अन्य सीमा यह है कि नाइट्रोजन संतुलन के समीकरण में 6.25 के विशिष्ट प्रोटीन नाइट्रोजन रूपांतरण कारक का उपयोग किया गया था। प्रोटीन नाइट्रोजन रूपांतरण कारक, प्रोटीन की वह मात्रा है जो आमतौर पर प्रोटीन की मात्रा से दर्शायी जाती है। पादप प्रोटीन के लिए 6.25 के प्रोटीन नाइट्रोजन रूपांतरण कारक के उपयोग की आलोचना की गई है (मैरियोटी, 2008, क्रैडॉक, 2021); मैरियोटी एट अल. पशु और पादप प्रोटीन वाले मिश्रित आहार के लिए 6.25 के बजाय 5.6 के प्रोटीन नाइट्रोजन रूपांतरण कारक का उपयोग करने की सलाह देते हैं।

हमारी स्प्रेडशीट, बार्थोलोमा और जॉनस्टन के वीगन लोगों पर नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययन में, हमने 5.6 के रूपांतरण कारक का उपयोग करके औसत नाइट्रोजन संतुलन परिणामों की पुनर्गणना की, जिसके परिणामस्वरूप -0.25 ग्राम/दिन (95% CI: -0.87 से 0.38) का नाइट्रोजन संतुलन प्राप्त हुआ। चूँकि बार्थोलोमा और जॉनस्टन ने अध्ययन में प्रयुक्त एक नमूना मेनू प्रदान किया है, इसलिए हम मारियोटी, 2008 द्वारा उपलब्ध कराए गए आँकड़ों के आधार पर 5.435 का रूपांतरण कारक भी प्राप्त कर पाए। 5.435 के रूपांतरण कारक का उपयोग करने पर नाइट्रोजन संतुलन 0.08 ग्राम/दिन (95% CI: -0.54 से 0.71) प्राप्त होता है। हालाँकि ये केवल अनुमान हैं, लेकिन ये संकेत देते हैं कि वीगन लोगों का औसत नाइट्रोजन संतुलन के करीब था। 

प्रोटीन के लिए आरडीए को 97-98% आबादी की जरूरतों को पूरा करना चाहिए और इसलिए जबकि इस अध्ययन में औसत वीगन संभवतः 0.8 ग्राम/किलोग्राम/दिन प्रोटीन पर नाइट्रोजन संतुलन के करीब था, प्रोटीन की यह मात्रा संभवतः 97-98% गैर-एथलेटिक वीगन लोगों की जरूरतों को पूरा करने के लिए पर्याप्त नहीं है।

पौध आधारित प्रोटीन का उपयोग करके नाइट्रोजन संतुलन 

अध्ययन डॉयल एट अल. (1965) ने दो चरणों में एक अध्ययन किया। पहले चरण में, आठ युवकों को 0.50 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन प्रोटीन और दूध से मेल खाने वाले अमीनो एसिड प्रोफ़ाइल वाला वीगन आहार दिया गया। इसमें कोई आश्चर्य की बात नहीं है कि इतने कम प्रोटीन सेवन के बावजूद, ये पुरुष नाइट्रोजन संतुलन में नहीं थे। दूसरे चरण में, 0.25 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन सोया प्रोटीन का उपयोग करके प्रोटीन की मात्रा बढ़ाकर 0.75 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन कर दी गई और अधिकांश पुरुष नाइट्रोजन संतुलन में थे। 

रजिस्टर एट अल. (1967) ने प्रतिभागियों को 3 सप्ताह तक 0.91 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन प्रोटीन वाला वीगन आहार दिया, जिसमें से 0.55 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन फलीदार प्रोटीन था। वीगन आहार पर, 12 में से 9 प्रतिभागी नाइट्रोजन संतुलन में थे। उन्होंने यह भी पाया कि वीगन आहार का प्रोटीन मांसाहारी आहार के प्रोटीन की तुलना में 2.6% कम पचता था।

एक तीसरे अध्ययन में युवा पुरुषों को लगभग वीगन आहार (41 ग्राम सूखे, मलाई रहित दूध को छोड़कर) पर 90 दिनों तक रखा गया, जिसमें 1 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन प्रोटीन का उपयोग किया गया (यानेज़, 1986)। कुछ प्रोटीन फलियों से प्राप्त हुआ (मात्रा की जानकारी नहीं दी गई)। 8 में से 7 विषयों में नाइट्रोजन संतुलन पाया गया।

पौध-आधारित आहार लेने वाले लोगों के सीरम एल्ब्यूमिन का अध्ययन 

एल्ब्यूमिन रक्त में मौजूद एक प्रोटीन है जो आहारीय प्रोटीन की विभिन्न मात्राओं पर प्रतिक्रिया करता है और इसका उपयोग प्रोटीन की ज़रूरतों को मापने के लिए किया जा सकता है। 

कैसो एट अल. (2000) ने पाया कि 26% पौध आधारित प्रोटीन की तुलना में 10 दिनों तक 63% पादप प्रोटीन वाला आहार लेने वाले पुरुषों में एल्ब्यूमिन संश्लेषण की दर 12% कम थी; कुल प्रोटीन 78 ग्राम/दिन था। 18 ग्राम/दिन सोया प्रोटीन शामिल करने के बाद एल्ब्यूमिन संश्लेषण सामान्य हो गया, जिससे पादप प्रोटीन 78% और कुल प्रोटीन 96 ग्राम/दिन हो गया। प्रतिभागी सोया के बिना लगभग 1.09 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन और सोया के साथ 1.34 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन खा रहे थे। 63% पौध आधारित प्रोटीन वाले आहार में दो अन्य प्रोटीन, प्रीएल्ब्यूमिन और ट्रांसफ़रिन, का संश्लेषण भी कम था। ट्रांसफ़रिन, एक लौह परिवहन प्रोटीन, का कम संश्लेषण दिलचस्प है क्योंकि लाइसिन की खुराक लौह अवशोषण को बढ़ाती पाई गई है।

एक क्रॉस-सेक्शनल अध्ययन में, हदाद एट अल. (1999) ने पाया कि वीगन लोगों (10 पुरुष और 15 महिलाएं) में मांसाहारी लोगों की तुलना में सीरम एल्ब्यूमिन का स्तर काफी अधिक था। हमने वीगन लोगों के प्रोटीन सेवन का अनुमान 0.93 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन (गणना) लगाया; 15 में से 10 वीगन महिलाएं 0.8 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन के प्रोटीन आरडीए को पूरा नहीं कर पाईं। लेखकों ने कहा, “हालांकि सीरम एल्ब्यूमिन प्रोटीन पोषण का एक संवेदनशील संकेतक नहीं हो सकता है, लेकिन उच्च सांद्रता से पता चलता है कि वीगन प्रतिभागियों के आहार में प्रोटीन पर्याप्त था।” 

वीगन लोगों पर क्रिएटिनिन क्लीयरेंस अध्ययन 

1980 के दशक के दौरान एकत्र किए गए आंकड़ों का उपयोग करते हुए, एंड्रिच एट अल. (2011) ने वीगन और गैर-वीगन मध्यम आयु वर्ग की महिलाओं में समान मांसपेशी द्रव्यमान पाया, जबकि वीगन लोगों के लिए प्रोटीन सेवन में 1.0 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन और सर्वाहारी के लिए 1.3 ग्राम/किग्रा/दिन का अंतर था। मांसपेशियों के द्रव्यमान का अनुमान क्रिएटिनिन क्लीयरेंस (मांसपेशी चयापचय का एक उपोत्पाद) पर आधारित सूत्रों का उपयोग करके लगाया गया था।

वीगन महिलाओं का 30 मिलीग्राम/किलोग्राम/दिन लाइसिन सेवन, 38 मिलीग्राम/किलोग्राम/दिन के आरडीए को पूरा नहीं करता था। हालाँकि, अध्ययन में अनुमान लगाया गया कि वीगन महिलाएँ औसतन केवल 1,511 किलो कैलोरी/दिन लेती हैं, जबकि सर्वाहारी महिलाओं के लिए यह आंकड़ा 1,866 किलो कैलोरी/दिन है, जबकि उनके बॉडी मास इंडेक्स (क्रमशः 20.0 और 20.7) समान हैं। इससे यह संकेत मिलता है कि वीगन लोगों के भोजन सेवन को कम करके आंका गया था, संभवतः वीगन खाद्य पदार्थों पर डेटा की कमी के कारण। पौध आधारित प्रोटीन संतुलन अनुसंधान का सारांश पौध-आधारित आहार लेने वाले लोगों के प्रोटीन संतुलन अध्ययनों के परिणाम नीचे दी गई तालिका में संकलित हैं। यह स्पष्ट नहीं है कि वे वीगन लोगों की प्रोटीन आवश्यकताओं के बारे में क्या संकेत देते हैं, लेकिन एक अनुमान है कि वीगन लोगों को कम से कम 1.0 ग्राम/किलोग्राम/दिन प्रोटीन से लाभ हो सकता है।

वीगन लोगों में अमीनो एसिड का सेवन और रक्त स्तर 

EPIC-ऑक्सफोर्ड के शोधकर्ताओं ने वयस्क पुरुषों (श्मिट, 2015) के विभिन्न आहार समूहों में आहार सेवन और अमीनो एसिड के रक्त स्तर का विश्लेषण किया। अध्ययन में प्रत्येक आहार समूह (वीगन, लैक्टो-ओवो-वेजिटेरियन, मछली खाने वाले और मांसाहारी) के 98 पुरुष शामिल थे। औसतन, प्रतिभागियों ने कई वर्षों तक अपने आहार का पालन किया था।

वीगन पुरुषों में प्रोटीन और अमीनो एसिड का सेवन 

श्मिट एट अल. द्वारा EPIC-ऑक्सफोर्ड के विश्लेषण में शामिल वीगन पुरुष 0.85 ग्राम/किलोग्राम/दिन प्रोटीन (गणना) खा रहे थे। हालाँकि पुरुष स्पष्ट रूप से स्वस्थ थे, लेकिन प्रोटीन संतुलन नहीं मापा गया। यह भी ध्यान देने योग्य है कि प्रोटीन और अमीनो एसिड का सेवन एक खाद्य आवृत्ति प्रश्नावली द्वारा मापा गया था, जिसके बारे में लेखकों का कहना है कि शायद वीगन लोगों के सेवन को कम करके आंका गया हो।

नीचे दी गई तालिका EPIC-ऑक्सफोर्ड में वीगन अमीनो एसिड सेवन की तुलना संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका के RDA अमीनो एसिड से करती है।

प्रतिभागियों का वज़न दर्ज नहीं किया गया, लेकिन वीगन लोगों का औसत बॉडी मास इंडेक्स 22.1 किग्रा/मी2 था। अगर हम एक ब्रिटिश पुरुष की औसत ऊँचाई 175.3 सेमी मान लें (बीबीसी, 2010), तो वीगन लोगों का औसत वज़न 67.9 किग्रा था।

वीगन पुरुषों ने सभी आवश्यक अमीनो अम्लों के लिए आरडीए (अनुपूरक दैनिक मान) को पूरा किया।

लाइसिन वीगन पुरुषों के आहार में सीमित अमीनो अम्ल था; वे आरडीए से केवल 9% अधिक थे। लाइसिन सेवन के लिए 95% विश्वास अंतराल 2.69-2.95 ग्राम/दिन था, जिसमें आरडीए का 104% का निचला मार्जिन था। 

वीगन पुरुषों ने मेथियोनीन के लिए आरडीए को 33% की न्यूनतम सीमा से पार कर लिया। मेथियोनीन पारंपरिक रूप से वीगन आहार में दूसरा सबसे अधिक चिंता का विषय वाला अमीनो अम्ल है। 

संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका के वीगन लोग यूनाइटेड किंगडम के लोगों की तुलना में अधिक मात्रा में प्रोटीन का सेवन कर सकते हैं। संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका के एडवेंटिस्ट स्वास्थ्य अध्ययन-2 में पुरुषों और महिलाओं के लिए संयुक्त रूप से औसत प्रोटीन सेवन 71 ग्राम/दिन (औसत पोषक तत्व सेवन) पाया गया, जो ईपीआईसी-ऑक्सफोर्ड (श्मिट, 2015) में पुरुषों के इस उपसमूह के 58 ग्राम/दिन से काफी अधिक है।

वीगन महिलाओं का अमीनो एसिड सेवन 

शरीर के वज़न के प्रतिशत के अनुसार, प्रोटीन और अमीनो एसिड के लिए RDA महिलाओं के लिए पुरुषों के समान ही है। 

EPIC-ऑक्सफ़ोर्ड में वीगन महिलाओं ने प्रतिदिन 56 ग्राम प्रोटीन (औसत पोषक तत्व सेवन) खाया, जो श्मिट एट अल. के EPIC-ऑक्सफ़ोर्ड उपसमूह के अनुसार वीगन पुरुषों से थोड़ा ही कम है, और इसलिए उनके अमीनो एसिड सेवन संभवतः समान हैं। 

पुरुषों की तरह, संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका में सेवेंथ-डे एडवेंटिस्ट वीगन महिलाएँ संभवतः यूनाइटेड किंगडम की वीगन महिलाओं (औसत पोषक तत्व सेवन) की तुलना में अधिक प्रोटीन खाती हैं, जिससे पता चलता है कि सेवेंथ-डे एडवेंटिस्ट वीगन महिलाएँ लाइसिन और अन्य अमीनो एसिड के लिए RDA से आगे निकल रही हैं।

डेनिश वीगन लोगों (आसलिंग, 2023) पर किए गए एक अध्ययन में पाया गया कि प्रतिभागियों का एक बड़ा प्रतिशत (36 महिलाएँ, 4 पुरुष) प्रोटीन और कुछ आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड की सिफ़ारिशों को पूरा नहीं कर पाया। हालाँकि 3-दिवसीय आहार रिकॉर्ड का इस्तेमाल किया गया था, जो आमतौर पर सेवन का अनुमान लगाने का एक विश्वसनीय तरीका है, ऊर्जा का स्तर काफ़ी कम आंका गया और 55% प्रतिभागी सिफ़ारिशों को पूरा नहीं कर पाए (औसत बॉडी मास इंडेक्स 24.8 के बावजूद)। अगर भोजन के सेवन को कम करके नहीं आंका गया होता, तो प्रतिभागियों का एक बड़ा प्रतिशत सिफ़ारिशों को पूरा करता हुआ दिखाई देता, क्योंकि ऊर्जा संबंधी सिफ़ारिशों को पूरा करने वाला केवल एक प्रतिभागी ही प्रोटीन संबंधी सिफ़ारिशों को पूरा नहीं कर पाया। 

वीगन पुरुषों के अमीनो एसिड प्लाज्मा स्तर 

श्मिट एट अल. (2015) ने आहार समूहों के बीच अमीनो एसिड के प्लाज्मा स्तरों की तुलना की। वीगन लोगों में लाइसिन, मेथियोनीन, ट्रिप्टोफैन और टायरोसिन का स्तर कम था, और एलेनिन और ग्लाइसिन का स्तर ज़्यादा था। शोधकर्ता इन अंतरों से चिंतित नहीं दिखे।

नीचे दी गई तालिका एपिक-ऑक्सफ़ोर्ड में वीगन पुरुषों के अमीनो एसिड के प्लाज्मा स्तर की तुलना अमेरिकी राष्ट्रीय चिकित्सा पुस्तकालय (एनएलएम) द्वारा दी गई संदर्भ श्रेणियों से करती है। एनएलएम बताता है कि ये संख्याएँ प्रयुक्त विशिष्ट प्रयोगशाला विधियों पर निर्भर करती हैं (एनएलएम, 2016)।

एनएलएम सिस्टीन (दो सिस्टीन अणुओं का संयोजन) के लिए एक संदर्भ सीमा प्रदान करता है, लेकिन श्मिट एट अल. ने सिस्टीन या सिस्टीन के प्लाज्मा स्तरों को सूचीबद्ध नहीं किया है। एनएलएम ट्रिप्टोफैन के लिए कोई संदर्भ सीमा प्रदान नहीं करता है, और न ही कोई स्पष्टीकरण देता है।

वीगन लोगों में एलेनिन, ग्लूटामेट, ग्लाइसिन, ल्यूसीन, ऑर्निथिन (एक गैर-प्रोटीन अमीनो एसिड), फेनिलएलनिन और सेरीन का स्तर संदर्भ सीमा से अधिक था; एस्पार्टेट भी अधिक था, लेकिन संदर्भ सीमा आश्चर्यजनक रूप से कम है। यह स्पष्ट नहीं है कि इन बढ़े हुए स्तरों का नैदानिक ​​महत्व है या नहीं। 

आर्जिनिन और वीगन आहार 

हर्पीस से पीड़ित लोगों को अक्सर लक्षणों को कम करने के लिए अमीनो एसिड आर्जिनिन का सेवन सीमित करने की सलाह दी जाती है। EPIC-ऑक्सफोर्ड ने पाया कि वीगन लोगों के रक्त में आर्जिनिन का स्तर कम होने की प्रवृत्ति नगण्य थी और मांसाहारी लोगों की तुलना में आर्जिनिन का सेवन भी कम था (वीगन लोगों के लिए 3.92 ग्राम/दिन, मांसाहारी लोगों के लिए 4.13 ग्राम/दिन); लैक्टो-ओवो वीगन में सबसे कम सेवन 3.36 ग्राम/दिन था (श्मिट, 2015)।

परिशिष्ट अ: प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता स्कोरिंग 

प्रोटीन की गुणवत्ता का आकलन करने के शुरुआती तरीकों में से एक प्रोटीन दक्षता अनुपात (पीईआर) था, जो विभिन्न प्रोटीन खिलाए गए चूहों की वृद्धि के आधार पर स्कोर निर्धारित करता था। पीईआर की चूहों पर आधारित होने और प्रोटीन रखरखाव आवश्यकताओं को ध्यान में न रखने के कारण आलोचना की गई, जिसके कारण संयुक्त राष्ट्र के खाद्य एवं कृषि संगठन (एफएओ) ने प्रोटीन की गुणवत्ता निर्धारित करने के अन्य तरीकों की सिफारिश की। 

एफएओ ने 1989 में पीडीसीएएएस की सिफारिश की 

1989 में, एफएओ ने पीईआर के स्थान पर प्रोटीन पाचनशीलता-संशोधित अमीनो एसिड स्कोर (पीडीसीएएएस) को “खाद्य पदार्थों और शिशु फ़ार्मुलों की प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता के मूल्यांकन के लिए सबसे उपयुक्त नियामक विधि” के रूप में अपनाने की सिफारिश की (पृष्ठ 42, एफएओ, 1991)। एफएओ ने पीडीसीएएएस को पीईआर से बेहतर माना क्योंकि पीडीसीएएएस प्रोटीन स्कोर को मनुष्यों, विशेष रूप से पूर्वस्कूली उम्र के बच्चों की आवश्यकताओं के आधार पर निर्धारित करता था (पृष्ठ 8, एफएओ, 1991)।

पीडीसीएएएस किसी खाद्य पदार्थ की प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता को उसके सीमित अमीनो अम्ल के आधार पर रैंक करता है। यह वह आवश्यक अमीनो अम्ल होता है जिसकी मात्रा प्रोटीन में संदर्भ प्रोटीन, आमतौर पर दूध प्रोटीन कैसिइन (पृष्ठ 5, एफएओ, 1991) की तुलना में सबसे कम होती है। पीडीसीएएएस प्रोटीन में प्रत्येक आवश्यक अमीनो अम्ल का मूल्यांकन करता है और फिर समग्र प्रोटीन के लिए न्यूनतम पीडीसीएएएस स्कोर का उपयोग करता है, जिसे 1.00 (पृष्ठ 35, एफएओ, 1991) पर छोटा कर दिया जाता है: 

(1 ग्राम परीक्षण प्रोटीन में सीमित अमीनो अम्ल का मिलीग्राम / 1 ग्राम संदर्भ प्रोटीन में समान अमीनो अम्ल का मिलीग्राम) x मल में वास्तविक प्रोटीन पाचनशक्ति प्रतिशत 

तालिका 11 (पृष्ठ 39, एफएओ, 1991) उस समय एफएओ द्वारा ज्ञात पीडीसीएएएस स्कोर प्रदान करती है। केवल तीन पशु खाद्य पदार्थ सूचीबद्ध हैं: कैसिइन (1.00), अंडे का सफेद भाग (1.00), और गोमांस (0.92)। इसमें एक दर्जन से अधिक परिचित पादप प्रोटीन सूचीबद्ध हैं और उनके PDCAAS स्कोर 0.26 से 0.69 तक हैं।

हालाँकि पीडीसीएएएस मनुष्यों की ज़रूरतों के अनुसार प्रोटीनों को रैंक करता है, लेकिन चूहों के प्रोटीन मल विश्लेषण (शैफ़्स्मा, 2000) के आधार पर अमीनो एसिड अवशोषण, यानी पाचनशक्ति की गणना करने के लिए इसकी आलोचना की गई है। चूहों का पाचन मनुष्यों से अलग होता है और मल विश्लेषण में इस बात पर ध्यान नहीं दिया जाता कि बृहदान्त्र में मौजूद बैक्टीरिया मल की अमीनो एसिड संरचना को बदल सकते हैं। एफएओ ने सहमति प्रक्रियाओं और पर्याप्त आँकड़े उपलब्ध होने पर मल पाचनशक्ति को इलियल पाचनशक्ति में बदलने की सिफ़ारिश की (पृष्ठ 32, एफएओ, 1991)। 

एफएओ ने संकेत दिया कि कुछ पीडीसीएएएस मानव पाचनशक्ति अध्ययनों पर आधारित हो सकते हैं; उनका कहना है कि “जब मानव संतुलन अध्ययनों का उपयोग नहीं किया जा सकता है, तो एगम या मैकडोनो एट अल. की मानकीकृत चूहा मल-संतुलन विधि की सिफारिश की जाती है (पृष्ठ 31, एफएओ, 1991)।” लेकिन तालिका 11 (पृष्ठ 39, एफएओ, 1991) में दिए गए पीडीसीएएएस स्कोर के उद्धरणों के सार से यह संकेत नहीं मिलता कि किसी मानवीय डेटा का उपयोग किया गया था।

पीडीसीएएएस की आलोचना प्रोटीन स्कोर को 1.00 पर सीमित करने के लिए भी की गई है, जिससे स्कोर किसी खाद्य पदार्थ की आहार में अन्य खाद्य पदार्थों के पूरक होने की क्षमता को प्रतिबिंबित नहीं कर पाता (शाफ्समा, 2000)। केवल पशु खाद्य पदार्थों के पीडीसीएएएस स्कोर ही इतने उच्च होते हैं कि उन्हें छोटा किया जा सके। 

1991 की एफएओ रिपोर्ट में खाद्य पदार्थों के पीडीसीएएएस को सूचीबद्ध करने में मुख्यतः सरवर और उनके सहयोगियों द्वारा प्रस्तुत आंकड़ों पर भरोसा किया गया था (पृष्ठ 39, एफएओ, 1991)। बाद में सरवर ने एक शोधपत्र प्रकाशित किया जिसमें सुझाव दिया गया कि पीडीसीएएएस पद्धति उन खाद्य पदार्थों के प्रोटीन की गुणवत्ता का अति-आकलन करती है जिनमें पोषण-विरोधी कारक होते हैं (सरवर, 1997), जो मुख्यतः पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थ हैं।

एफएओ ने 2011 में डीआईएएएस की सिफ़ारिश की 

2011 में, मानव पोषण में प्रोटीन गुणवत्ता मूल्यांकन पर एफएओ विशेषज्ञ परामर्श पीडीसीएएएस (एफएओ, 2013) की पर्याप्तता की समीक्षा के लिए आयोजित किया गया था। पैनल ने प्रोटीन के मूल्यांकन के तरीके को पीडीसीएएएस से बदलकर सुपाच्य अपरिहार्य अमीनो अम्ल स्कोर (डीआईएएएस) करने की सिफ़ारिश की। 

डीआईएएएस संपूर्ण प्रोटीन के बजाय विशिष्ट अमीनो अम्लों की पाचनशक्ति का उपयोग करता है। किसी भोजन के लिए डीआईएएएस किसी भी आवश्यक अमीनो अम्ल के लिए न्यूनतम स्कोर होता है (पृष्ठ 3, एफएओ, 2013): 

100 x (आहार प्रोटीन के 1 ग्राम में सुपाच्य आहार अपरिहार्य अमीनो अम्ल का मिलीग्राम / संदर्भ प्रोटीन के 1 ग्राम में उसी आहार अपरिहार्य अमीनो अम्ल का मिलीग्राम)

DIAAS स्कोर 100% पर काटे नहीं जाते। प्रत्येक अमीनो अम्ल की इलियल पाचनशक्ति का निर्धारण अधिमानतः मनुष्यों में, उसके बाद बढ़ते सूअरों में और फिर बढ़ते चूहों में किया जाता है (पृष्ठ 4, FAO, 2013)। 

शिशुओं के लिए, DIAAS संदर्भ प्रोटीन मानव स्तन के दूध में पाया जाने वाला अमीनो अम्ल पैटर्न है। गैर-शिशुओं के लिए, DIASS मनुष्यों की आवश्यकताओं के आधार पर एक संदर्भ प्रोटीन का उपयोग करता है। परिशिष्ट B: DIAAS संदर्भ प्रोटीन बताता है कि उन्होंने संदर्भ प्रोटीन की गणना कैसे की। 

FAO DIAAS स्कोर के कुछ उदाहरण प्रदान करता है। तालिका 6 (पृष्ठ 44, FAO, 2013) संपूर्ण दूध पाउडर (122), गेहूँ (40), और मटर (64) के लिए DIAAS स्कोर प्रदान करती है।

डीआईएएएस की आलोचना 

क्रैडॉक एट अल. (2021) ने पौध-आधारित आहारों के संबंध में डीआईएएएस की आलोचनाओं की एक सूची प्रकाशित की। 

क्रैडॉक एट अल. की अधिकांश आलोचना पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों की पाचनशक्ति पर केंद्रित है, जिसके बारे में उनका तर्क है कि डीआईएएएस द्वारा इसे कम करके आंका गया है। वे टोमे डी. (2013) का हवाला देते हैं, जिनके समीक्षा पत्र में मनुष्यों में इलियल खाद्य पाचनशक्ति की एक तालिका दी गई है। पशु प्रोटीन की तुलना में पाचनशक्ति में उल्लेखनीय रूप से कम होने के बजाय, क्रैडॉक एट अल. बताते हैं कि “सोया प्रोटीन आइसोलेट, मटर प्रोटीन आइसोलेट, मटर प्रोटीन आटा, गेहूं का आटा और ल्यूपिन आटे में 89-92% पाचनशक्ति प्रदर्शित हुई, जो अंडे, मांस और दूध प्रोटीन के लिए लगभग 90-95% थी।” 

यहाँ संक्षिप्त व्याख्याओं के साथ क्रैडॉक एट अल. की आलोचनाओं की एक सूची दी गई है:

• नाइट्रोजन-से-प्रोटीन रूपांतरण कारक पशु और पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों को अलग-अलग तरीके से प्रभावित करते हैं।
  • पीडीसीएएएस और डीआईएएएस स्कोर की गणना करते समय, वनस्पति खाद्य पदार्थों के लिए आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड और कुल प्रोटीन के अनुपात को कम करके आंका जा सकता है, क्योंकि एफएओ किसी खाद्य पदार्थ में प्रोटीन की मात्रा निर्धारित करते समय खाद्य-विशिष्ट नाइट्रोजन-से-प्रोटीन रूपांतरण कारकों की आवश्यकता नहीं रखता है। 

• डीआईएएएस में फलों और सब्जियों की संख्या सीमित है।
  • कई पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों को संपूर्ण आहार के मूल्यांकन में शामिल नहीं किया जाएगा क्योंकि अधिकांश में डीआईएएएस स्कोर नहीं होते हैं। 

• विकसित देशों में पौध-आधारित आहार पैटर्न का पालन करने वालों के लिए डीआईएएएस आहार स्कोर की प्रासंगिकता संदिग्ध है।
  • खाद्य-सुरक्षित क्षेत्रों में पौध-आधारित आहार आसानी से कुल आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड की ज़रूरतों को पूरा कर सकते हैं। (इस आलोचना में, क्रैडॉक एट अल. कुल आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड को एक समग्र के रूप में देखते हैं और व्यक्तिगत अमीनो एसिड का विश्लेषण नहीं करते हैं।)

• DIASS स्कोर पशु पाचन पर आधारित होते हैं।
  • चूहों और सूअरों में अमीनो एसिड की पाचनशक्ति का मनुष्यों पर अतिरिक्त प्रभाव नहीं डाला जा सकता। (FAO मानता है कि चूहे आदर्श मॉडल नहीं हैं, लेकिन कहता है कि सूअर का पाचन मनुष्यों के समान ही होता है, जबकि विभिन्न प्रकार के खाद्य पदार्थों के लिए मानव डेटा प्राप्त करना अव्यावहारिक है।) 

• मिश्रित आहार में शामिल होने पर खाद्य पदार्थों के DIAAS स्कोर बदल जाते हैं।
  • मिश्रित आहार में, प्रोटीन और अमीनो एसिड की पाचनशक्ति बदल जाती है, जबकि DIAAS स्कोर केवल एकल खाद्य पदार्थों पर आधारित होते हैं और पशु खाद्य पदार्थों को बढ़ा-चढ़ाकर पेश करते हैं। 

• पादप खाद्य पदार्थों की पाचनशक्ति ऊष्मा उपचार और प्रसंस्करण से बेहतर होती है।
  • अधिकांश DIAAS स्कोरिंग के लिए कच्चे खाद्य पदार्थों का उपयोग किया जाता है, जबकि प्रोटीन युक्त पौध आधारित खाद्य पदार्थों को आमतौर पर पकाया या संसाधित किया जाता है जिससे उन्हें पचाना आसान हो जाता है।

• DIAAS स्कोर कभी भी पौध-आधारित आहार लेने वाले एथलीटों के लिए नहीं थे।
  • FAO ने DIAAS को प्रोटीन की ज़रूरतों को पूरा करके वैश्विक आबादी को कुपोषण से बचाने में मदद करने के एक उपकरण के रूप में अनुमोदित किया है, लेकिन मांसपेशियों के निर्माण की क्षमता के आधार पर प्रोटीन की रैंकिंग के लिए DIASS का समर्थन नहीं किया है। 

क्रैडॉक एट अल. शोध का हवाला देते हैं जो बताता है कि उच्च DIASS स्कोर वाले प्रोटीन मांसपेशियों की अतिवृद्धि को नहीं बढ़ाते हैं। क्रैडॉक एट अल. का निष्कर्ष है कि “विकसित देशों में प्रोटीन की गुणवत्ता पर ज़ोर देना अनुत्पादक है।” उनका कहना है कि अगर प्रोटीन की गुणवत्ता का आकलन करना है, तो PDCAAS उन पश्चिमी वयस्कों के लिए सबसे उपयुक्त उपकरण है जो पौध-आधारित आहार लेते हैं। 

यह स्पष्ट नहीं है कि क्रैडॉक एट अल. क्यों मानते हैं कि PDCAAS, DIASS से बेहतर है, जबकि DIASS की उनकी अधिकांश आलोचना PDCAAS पर भी लागू होती है। शायद वे PDCAAS को इसलिए पसंद करते हैं क्योंकि यह पशु प्रोटीन स्कोर को 1.00 पर सीमित कर देता है।

परिशिष्ट B: DIAAS संदर्भ प्रोटीन 

चूँकि यह समझना कठिन है कि FAO ने गैर-शिशुओं के लिए DIAAS संदर्भ प्रोटीन का निर्धारण कैसे किया, इसलिए मैंने यहाँ और विवरण शामिल किए हैं जिनके लिए उनके दस्तावेज़ में दी गई तालिकाओं का पालन करना आवश्यक है। 

गैर-शिशुओं के लिए, DIAAS स्कोरिंग में प्रयुक्त संदर्भ प्रोटीन अमीनो एसिड आवश्यकताओं की गणना है, जिसे तालिका 3 (पृष्ठ 27, FAO, 2013) में दर्शाया गया है और तालिका 5 (पृष्ठ 29, FAO, 2013) में संक्षिप्त किया गया है। 

तालिका 5 के निचले भाग, स्कोरिंग पैटर्न mg/g प्रोटीन आवश्यकता, में दिए गए अंकों की गणना रखरखाव और वृद्धि कारक के योग को अमीनो एसिड आवश्यकताओं से गुणा करके की जाती है। तालिका 3 (पृष्ठ 27, FAO, 2013) में दिए गए अंक 2007 की FAO रिपोर्ट से लिए गए हैं जो बताती है कि इनकी गणना कैसे की जाती है (FAO 2007)।

2007 की एफएओ रिपोर्ट में, तालिका 23 (पृष्ठ 150) में प्रत्येक अमीनो एसिड के लिए औसत वयस्क आवश्यकता सूचीबद्ध है, जैसा कि समिति द्वारा विभिन्न तरीकों और स्रोतों, विशेष रूप से मानव नाइट्रोजन संतुलन अध्ययनों, जिनमें विशिष्ट अमीनो एसिड सीमित होते हैं, के आधार पर निर्धारित किया गया है। वयस्कों के लिए एफएओ की 2007 की अमीनो एसिड आवश्यकताएँ आईओएम की अनुमानित औसत आवश्यकता (ईएआर) से मेल नहीं खातीं, लेकिन अपेक्षाकृत करीब हैं।

परिशिष्ट C: मांसपेशी संश्लेषण अध्ययन 

सारांश: यह परिशिष्ट वीगन आहार का उपयोग करके मांसपेशी संश्लेषण संबंधी अध्ययनों को शामिल करता है, जो खेल पोषण के संदर्भ में नहीं किए गए थे। इन अध्ययनों में पाया गया कि वृद्ध वयस्कों में, मांसाहारी भोजन की तुलना में पौध-आधारित भोजन के बाद मांसपेशी संश्लेषण कम होता है, लेकिन प्रोटीन से भरपूर 10-दिवसीय वीगन आहार (प्रतिदिन 103 ग्राम) के दौरान समान मांसपेशी संश्लेषण होता है। निष्कर्ष निकालने से पहले और अधिक शोध की आवश्यकता है।

10-दिवसीय वीगन आहार के दौरान मांसपेशी संश्लेषण 

पौध-आधारित भोजन के बाद मांसपेशी संश्लेषण पर एक अध्ययन करने और यह पता लगाने के बाद कि मांसाहारी भोजन के बाद मांसपेशी संश्लेषण कम था (विवरण नीचे “बीफ़ या पौध आधारित प्रोटीन युक्त भोजन के बाद मांसपेशी संश्लेषण” में दिया गया है), शोधकर्ताओं के इसी समूह ने एक क्रॉसओवर अध्ययन में मांसपेशी संश्लेषण दरों की तुलना की, जिसमें वृद्ध लोगों ने 10-10 दिनों तक पहले वीगन आहार और फिर सर्वाहारी आहार (या इसके विपरीत) लिया (डोमिक, 2024, नीदरलैंड)। वीगन आहार और सर्वाहारी आहार पर मांसपेशी संश्लेषण में कोई अंतर नहीं था। 

इस अध्ययन में वीगन आहार में प्रतिदिन औसतन 103 ग्राम प्रोटीन था। प्रोटीन की यह उच्च मात्रा आंशिक रूप से उच्च-प्रोटीन मांस विकल्पों के उपयोग से थी और यह सामान्य वीगन आहारों में प्रतिदिन 56-71 ग्राम प्रोटीन की मात्रा से काफी अधिक है (हमारा लेख, औसत पोषक तत्व सेवन देखें)। इस कारण से, हम इस अध्ययन का उपयोग यह मानने के लिए नहीं कर सकते कि अधिकांश वृद्ध वीगन लोगों को प्रोटीन की वह मात्रा मिल रही है, जिससे मांसपेशियों के संश्लेषण में उतनी ही वृद्धि होगी, जितनी कि एक सामान्य सर्वाहारी आहार से होती है।

इस अध्ययन की दो सीमाएँ यह थीं कि यह मांसपेशी प्रोटीन के टूटने को नहीं मापता था और इसे अनिवार्य रूप से मांसपेशी प्रतिधारण की सटीक तस्वीर नहीं माना जा सकता था। इसके अलावा, इन वृद्ध लोगों को प्रतिदिन अधिक मात्रा में पैदल चलने के आधार पर अत्यधिक शारीरिक रूप से सक्रिय माना गया, जिसे शोधकर्ताओं ने मांसपेशी संश्लेषण के लिए अनुकूल बताया। 

बीफ़ या पादप प्रोटीन युक्त भोजन के बाद मांसपेशी संश्लेषण 

पिंकर्स एट अल. (2023, नीदरलैंड) ने एक क्रॉसओवर परीक्षण किया जिसमें 8 वृद्ध पुरुषों और 8 वृद्ध महिलाओं (औसत आयु 72 वर्ष) को बीफ़ युक्त भोजन या संपूर्ण पौध खाद्य पदार्थों से प्राप्त पौध आधारित प्रोटीन युक्त भोजन दिया गया। प्रत्येक भोजन में 0.45 ग्राम प्रति किलोग्राम शरीर के वजन (लगभग 36 ग्राम प्रोटीन) था; भोजन में आवश्यक अमीनो एसिड (EAA) की मात्रा अपेक्षाकृत समान थी।

पशु-आधारित भोजन के परिणामस्वरूप रक्त में EAAs की मात्रा में वृद्धि, ल्यूसीन का स्तर बढ़ा, और मांसपेशी प्रोटीन तथा संपूर्ण शरीर प्रोटीन संश्लेषण के मार्कर बढ़े। पौध-आधारित भोजन के लिए, भोजन के बाद के छह घंटों की अवधि के दौरान मांसपेशी प्रोटीन संश्लेषण के मार्कर औसतन कम हो गए (जैसा कि शोधपत्र के चित्र 7 में दर्शाया गया है)। 

लेखक अपनी चिंता का सारांश इस प्रकार देते हैं:

यद्यपि हम नैतिक, पर्यावरणीय और स्वास्थ्य संबंधी विचारों से अधिक पौध-आधारित आहार की ओर बढ़ने की अवधारणा का समर्थन करते हैं, फिर भी जीवन में आगे चलकर मांसपेशियों के स्वास्थ्य को बनाए रखने के संबंध में कुछ चिंताएँ हैं। अधिक पौध-आधारित आहार से स्वास्थ्य लाभ मिलने की संभावना है, जिनमें से कई लाभ उच्च फाइबर सामग्री और अधिक पौध-आधारित संपूर्ण खाद्य पदार्थों के सेवन के तृप्ति प्रभाव के कारण कम ऊर्जा सेवन के कारण होते हैं। हालाँकि, प्रत्येक मुख्य भोजन के उपचय गुण मांसपेशी प्रोटीन संश्लेषण दर को प्रोत्साहित करने और इस प्रकार, मांसपेशियों के रखरखाव में सहायता करने के लिए महत्वपूर्ण प्रासंगिकता के हो सकते हैं। यह वृद्ध वयस्कों के लिए विशेष रूप से महत्वपूर्ण हो सकता है, क्योंकि मांसपेशियों के द्रव्यमान में उम्र से संबंधित कमी कम से कम आंशिक रूप से युवा विषयों की तुलना में वृद्ध लोगों में तीव्र भोजन के कारण भोजन के बाद कमजोर मांसपेशी प्रोटीन संश्लेषण प्रतिक्रिया के कारण होती है।

इस अध्ययन की एक सीमा यह है कि उन्होंने मांसपेशी द्रव्यमान में होने वाले उन परिवर्तनों को नहीं मापा जो मांसपेशी संश्लेषण के संकेतकों से ज़्यादा महत्वपूर्ण हैं। मिशेल एट अल. (2023, कनाडा) द्वारा किए गए एक अन्य शोध में भोजन के बाद मांसपेशी संश्लेषण के संकेतकों और प्रतिरोध व्यायाम के बाद मांसपेशी द्रव्यमान के बीच कोई संबंध नहीं पाया गया। मिशेल एट अल. लिखते हैं, “हालांकि, स्पष्ट रूप से, [मांसपेशी प्रोटीन संश्लेषण] के तीव्र प्रारंभिक माप एक ही व्यक्ति में अतिवृद्धि या अतिवृद्धि क्षमता के प्रतिनिधि माप नहीं हैं।”

परिशिष्ट D: वीगन लोगों में घाव भरना 

पोसो एट अल. (संयुक्त राज्य अमेरिका, 2025) ने वीगन लोगों और वीगन लोगों में घाव भरने के प्रभाव की जाँच करने वाले अध्ययनों की समीक्षा की। उन्होंने 2019 और 2022 के बीच प्रकाशित आठ अध्ययनों (छह इटली से, एक भारत से और एक तुर्की से) की समीक्षा की। 

इन अध्ययनों में विभिन्न प्रकार की त्वचा सर्जरी के बाद घाव भरने की दर को मापा गया, जिसमें विभिन्न प्रकार की स्कोरिंग विधियों और नैदानिक ​​परिणामों का उपयोग किया गया। अधिकांश अध्ययनों का नमूना आकार छोटा था और शोधकर्ताओं को चिंता थी कि वीगन या शाकाहारी मरीज़ असंतुलित आहार ले रहे थे। लेकिन निष्कर्ष इस बात में एक समान थे कि सभी अध्ययनों से पता चला कि वीगन या शाकाहारियों में सर्वाहारी लोगों की तुलना में घाव भरने की दर कुछ हद तक कम होती है।

अध्ययनों ने विभिन्न पोषक तत्वों से संबंधित स्तरों को मापा। वीगन लोगों में विटामिन B12 का स्तर सर्वाहारी लोगों की तुलना में लगातार कम रहा (लगभग 200 pg/ml बनाम 350 pg/ml), लेकिन फिर भी इतना अधिक कि इससे घाव भरने पर कोई असर पड़ने की संभावना नहीं दिखती। समीक्षा में यह संकेत नहीं दिया गया है कि पोषक तत्वों के स्तर को परिणामों से जोड़ने का कोई प्रयास किया गया था। 

पोसो एट अल. प्रोटीन या ज़िंक के सेवन की रिपोर्ट नहीं देते हैं, इसलिए यह संभावना नहीं है कि अध्ययनों ने उन्हें मापा हो। 

कैसे आहार प्रोटीन का सेवन घाव भरने को बढ़ावा देता है, इस पुस्तक में, नैन्सी कॉलिन्स, पीएचडी, आरडी, एलडी/एन, एफएपीडब्ल्यूसीए, और एलिसन श्निट्जर (2014) कहते हैं: 

यह ज्ञात है कि घाव भरने के लिए पर्याप्त प्रोटीन ज़रूरी है, लेकिन इसकी सटीक मात्रा स्थापित नहीं है। सर्जरी के बाद, 1 से 1.5 ग्राम प्रोटीन/किलोग्राम की सिफारिश की जाती है, लेकिन यह सर्जरी के घाव की सीमा के अनुसार भिन्न हो सकता है। प्रेशर अल्सर वाले रोगियों के लिए भी, यह सिफारिश 1 से 1.5 ग्राम/किलोग्राम है; गहरे अल्सर या कई दबाव-अल्सर वाले रोगियों को 1.5 से 2 ग्राम/किग्रा की आवश्यकता हो सकती है। बड़े जले हुए घावों वाले रोगियों के लिए, मूत्र और जले हुए घाव के रिसाव के माध्यम से प्रोटीन की व्यापक हानि की भरपाई के लिए प्रोटीन की आवश्यकता कभी-कभी 1.5 से 3 ग्राम/किग्रा तक पहुँच जाती है।

EPIC-ऑक्सफ़ोर्ड अध्ययन में वीगन लोगों का औसत प्रोटीन सेवन 0.9 से 1.0 ग्राम/किग्रा था (सोबीकी, 2016)। इससे पता चलता है कि घाव भरने वाले अध्ययनों में वीगन लोगों का प्रोटीन सेवन घाव भरने के लिए अनुशंसित निम्नतम सीमा के करीब या उससे कम था। वीगन लोगों में घाव भरने में कमज़ोरी का सबसे सरल कारण यह है कि वे प्रोटीन की आदर्श मात्रा नहीं ले रहे थे। 

वीगन लोगों द्वारा जिंक का सेवन बिना पूरक आहार के भी सीमित हो सकता है। घाव भरने पर प्रभाव डालने के लिए पर्याप्त कम जिंक का सेवन भी संभव प्रतीत होता है, लेकिन पासो एट अल. की समीक्षा में इसका आकलन नहीं किया गया था। 

ऐसे वीगन जिन्हें घाव है उन्हें पर्याप्त मात्रा में प्रोटीन प्राप्त करने पर विशेष ध्यान देना चाहिए और वीगन आहार में शामिल विशिष्ट पोषक तत्वों (वीगन लोगों के लिए पोषण संबंधी सुझाव देखें) के अलावा, लगभग RDA (पुरुषों के लिए 11 मिलीग्राम, महिलाओं के लिए 8 मिलीग्राम) का जिंक पूरक लेने पर विचार कर सकते हैं।

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Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, World Health Organization & United Nations University. Protein and amino acid requirements in human nutrition: report of a joint FAO/WHO/UNU expert consultation. 2007.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Food and Nutrition Paper 92. Dietary protein quality evaluation in human nutrition. Report of an FAO Expert Consultation. Proceeds of meeting held in Auckland, New Zealand 31 March–2 April, 2011. Report published in 2013.

Food and Drug Administration. United States Department of Health and Human Services. Code of Federal Regulations. Title 21, Volume 2. 21CFR101.54. Current as of Jan 17, 2023.

Gaffney-Stomberg E, Insogna KL, Rodriguez NR, Kerstetter JE. Increasing dietary protein requirements in elderly people for optimal muscle and bone health. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009 Jun;57(6):1073-9.

Haddad EH, Berk LS, Kettering JD, Hubbard RW, Peters WR. Dietary intake and biochemical, hematologic, and immune status of vegans compared with nonvegetarians. Am J Clin Nutr. 1999 Sep;70(3 Suppl):586S-593S.

Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. National Academy of Sciences. Food and Nutrition Board. 2005.

Mariotti F, Tomé D, Mirand PP. Converting nitrogen into protein–beyond 6.25 and Jones’ factors. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2008 Feb;48(2):177-84.

Mitchell CJ, Churchward-Venne TA, Parise G, Bellamy L, Baker SK, Smith K, Atherton PJ, Phillips SM. Acute post-exercise myofibrillar protein synthesis is not correlated with resistance training-induced muscle hypertrophy in young men. PLoS One. 2014 Feb 24;9(2):e89431.

Morais JA, Chevalier S, Gougeon R. Protein turnover and requirements in the healthy and frail elderly. J Nutr Health Aging. 2006 Jul-Aug;10(4):272-83.

Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, Schoenfeld BJ, Henselmans M, Helms E, Aragon AA, Devries MC, Banfield L, Krieger JW, Phillips SM. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J Sports Med. 2018 Mar;52(6):376-384.

National Library of Medicine. United States. Plasma amino acids. Medline Plus. Accessed January 30, 2016.

Paddon-Jones D, Short KR, Campbell WW, Volpi E, Wolfe RR. Role of dietary protein in the sarcopenia of aging. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 May;87(5):1562S-1566S.

Pinckaers PJ, Domić J, Petrick HL, Holwerda AM, Trommelen J, Hendriks FK, Houben LH, Goessens JP, van Kranenburg JM, Senden JM, de Groot LC, Verdijk LB, Snijders T, van Loon LJ. Higher Muscle Protein Synthesis Rates Following Ingestion of an Omnivorous Meal Compared with an Isocaloric and Isonitrogenous Vegan Meal in Healthy, Older Adults. J Nutr. 2023 Nov 15:S0022-3166(23)72723-5.

Posso AN, Adams AJ, Escobar-Domingo MJ, Foppiani J, Mustoe A, Schonebaum DI, Garbaccio N, Smith JE, Lin SJ, Lee BT. The Impact of Vegan and Vegetarian Diets on Wound Healing: A Scoping Review. Aesthetic Plast Surg. 2025 Feb 3.

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Contents

• Essential Information
  • Soy
• Additional Tips
• Research on Plant Protein
  • Assessing Protein Needs of a Population
  • Dietary Reference Intake
    • Setting the DRIs for Protein
    • Women Have the Same RDA as Men
    • Criticism of the Protein RDA
      • Protein Needs for People Over 60
      • Protein Needs of Athletes
  • Protein and Amino Acid Content of Selected Plant Foods
    • Good Sources of Lysine among Plant Foods
  • Plant Protein Balance Research
    • Nitrogen Balance Study on Vegans
    • Nitrogen Balance Studies using Plant Protein
    • Serum Albumin Studies of People on Plant-Based Diets
    • Creatinine Clearance Study on Vegans
    • Summary of Plant Protein Balance Research
  • Amino Acid Intakes and Blood Levels of Vegans
    • Amino Acid Intakes of Vegan Men
    • Amino Acid Intakes of Vegan Women
    • Amino Acid Plasma Levels of Vegan Men
    • Arginine and the Vegan Diet
  • Appendix A: Protein Quality Scoring
    • FAO Recommends the PDCAAS in 1989
    • FAO Recommends the DIAAS in 2011
    • Criticism of the DIAAS
  • Appendix B: The DIAAS Reference Protein
  • Appendix C: Muscle Synthesis Studies
    • Muscle Synthesis During a 10-day Vegan Diet
    • Muscle Synthesis after a Meal Containing Beef or Plant Protein
  • Appendix D: Wound Healing in Vegans
  • Bibliography

Essential Information

“Where do you get your protein?” is typically the first question vegans are asked. And it’s a bit hard to answer because almost all plant foods contain protein. In other words, vegans get our protein in just about everything we eat!

Eating a serving of high-protein plant foods at most meals will provide enough protein for most vegans (the exception being some strength athletes who should experiment with varying amounts to find the best results). Anyone who’s regularly been eating meat and cheese is used to high amounts of protein and if you’re craving animal products or feeling fatigued on a vegan diet, adding more protein is often the solution.

High-protein plant foods include seitan and most vegan meats (about 15-25 grams per serving, but check the label), tempeh (about 15 grams per 1/2 cup), tofu (about 10-15 grams per 1/2 cup), peanuts (about 15 grams per 1/2 cup), beans and lentils (about 8 grams per 1/2 cup), and soymilk (about 7 grams per cup).

Soy

Speaking of protein, soyfoods have traditionally been a staple of many vegan diets due to their high protein content. Myths abound that soy is harmful and that has made some people shy away, but there’s plenty of scientific evidence that two servings of soyfoods per day is perfectly safe. Higher amounts are probably also safe but they haven’t been studied as thoroughly. As a vegan dietitian, athlete, and someone familiar with the scientific research on soy, I happily eat as much soy as I desire!

The most robust area of research on soy has been with respect to breast cancer and the overwhelming evidence is that soy can reduce the risk of breast cancer. There’s also evidence to suggest that soy can reduce the risk of prostate cancer and heart disease (by lowering LDL cholesterol). You can read more in our article Soy: Main Controversies.

Tofu is an extremely versatile soyfood that has been eaten in some Asian cultures for hundreds of years. You can fry or bake it and add it to just about any savory dish. You can also freeze and then thaw it to give it a chewy texture. Tofu doesn’t have much taste on its own, but it takes on the flavors of the foods it’s mixed with.

Tofu is normally made with calcium salts and is therefore a rich source of calcium for vegans (check the packaging for “calcium” in the ingredients).

Another type of tofu, silken tofu, has a smooth texture and is used for making pudding, mousse, and cream-based pies. Silken tofu is often found in the baking or Asian sections of the grocery store.

While most vegans eat soyfoods, you don’t need to in order to be a vegan as there are plenty of other high-protein foods. But unless you have a specific allergy to soy, there’s no reason why you can’t enjoy it just like millions of other people throughout the world, vegans and meat-eaters alike.

Additional Tips

To ensure adequate protein status, vegans should eat 3-4 servings per day of high-protein foods that also are good sources of the amino acid lysine. Below is a list of protein foods from which to choose (weights listed are for one serving of ready-to-eat food):

• Legumes – 1/2 cup cooked
  • Beans – garbanzo (chickpea), kidney, pinto, navy (125-150 grams)
  • Lentils (100 grams)
  • Peas – split (100 grams) or green (80 grams)
  • Soyfoods – edamame (80 grams), tofu (125 grams), tempeh (165 grams), soy milk (1 cup or 250 mL), soy meats (3 oz or 85 grams)
  • Peanuts – 1/4 cup (35-40 grams)
• Seitan – 3 oz (85 grams)
• Quinoa – 1 cup cooked (185 grams)
• Pistachios – 1/4 cup (30 grams)
• Pumpkin seeds – 1/4 cup roasted (35 grams)

It’s hard to design a vegan diet that meets lysine requirements for someone who doesn’t exercise daily without including legumes, seitan, quinoa, pistachios, or pumpkin seeds. People who exercise have higher caloric needs, making it easier to meet lysine needs through other foods.

Athletes will require somewhat more servings of protein than listed above, but this will be based on their individual sport and training. See Sports Nutrition for more information.

There’s evidence that as people age, they need a higher percentage of their calories to be protein; people over 60 should focus on making the above high-protein foods a large part of their meals.

Vegans who don’t eat enough calories to maintain their weight should make an effort to include a higher percentage of high protein foods.

Research on Plant Protein

Proteins are made out of chains of amino acids. Some amino acids can be made by the body—generally from other amino acids—but some cannot. The ones that cannot are known as essential or indispensable.

Because some amino acids are essential, the amino acid requirements are as important as protein needs. But because the essential amino acids are found in fairly consistent amounts in the average diet of Americans, the U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for protein also covers amino acid needs.

A common belief is that most plant foods are completely devoid of at least one essential amino acid, but the truth is that all plant proteins have some of every essential amino acid. As a general rule, legumes are lower in the essential amino acid methionine while most other plant foods are lower in lysine. In general, though, only lysine is likely to be a concern for most vegans because almost all vegans naturally eat plenty of foods high in methionine.

In the early 1970s, Frances Moore Lappe wrote a book, Diet for a Small Planet, that popularized the idea of combining plant proteins at each meal in order to get a balance of essential amino acids in order to form a complete protein. In particular, mixing legumes and grains ensures that a vegan is obtaining both lysine and methionine at each meal. But we now know that vegans don’t need to worry about combining proteins at individual meals in order to create a complete protein because our livers store essential amino acids to be used as needed. The 2009 American Dietetic Association’s Position Paper on Vegetarian Diets stated:

Plant protein can meet requirements when a variety of plant foods is consumed and energy needs are met. Research indicates that an assortment of plant foods eaten over the course of a day can provide all essential amino acids and ensure adequate nitrogen retention and use in healthy adults, thus complementary proteins do not need to be consumed at the same meal.

In fact, complementary protein combining can be counterproductive for vegans. Dr. Anna Borek explains how the foods highest in protein contain more of all of the essential amino acids than would a combination of foods typically used to complement proteins (Is there value in combining “complementary” plant proteins?, 2024).

Assessing Protein Needs of a Population

Discussions about protein needs tend to focus on three different lines of reasoning:

1. Protein quality scoring
2. Muscle synthesis studies
3. Protein balance studies

Protein quality scoring is mostly relevant to populations at risk for malnutrition while muscle synthesis studies are mostly relevant to athletes. Protein balance studies are the most relevant studies for assessing the protein needs of a well-nourished population.

We include an in-depth discussion of protein quality scoring in Appendix A: Protein Quality Scoring, including explanations of the protein efficiency ratio (PER), the protein digestibility–corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS), and the digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS).

We cover muscle synthesis and plant-based diets in our article, Weightlifting for Vegans and one study that wasn’t conducted in a sports nutrition context in Appendix C: Muscle Synthesis Studies.

Here, we’ll focus on protein balance studies in discussing the protein needs of the general vegan population.

Dietary Reference Intakes

The United States Institute of Medicine (IOM) sets the dietary reference intake (DRI). The DRI for protein is given in grams per kilogram per day (g/kg/day) of “body weight” (IOM, 2005). Fat mass doesn’t require much protein for maintenance, so “body weight” is generally interpreted to mean “ideal” or “healthy” body weight even though this isn’t specified in the DRI.

The table below lists the DRI for protein. The table also includes the DRI for the amino acid, lysine, because lysine tends to be the essential amino acid least plentiful in the average vegan diet; if a vegan is meeting their needs for lysine, they’re most likely meeting their needs for all the essential amino acids.

The table below lists the adult RDA for protein and the essential amino acids.

Setting the DRIs for Protein

In setting the DRSs for protein, the IOM relied on nitrogen balance studies, especially a 2003 meta-analysis by Rand et al. (2003).

Nitrogen balance studies are used because nitrogen is a component of protein and isn’t found in the other macronutrients (i.e., fat, carbohydrate, and alcohol). Nitrogen balance studies measure how much nitrogen someone eats and then subtracts how much nitrogen they lose through urine, feces, hair, sweat, etc. If they lose more nitrogen than they eat, they’re in negative nitrogen balance and require more protein. If they lose as much as they eat, they’re in nitrogen balance and are obtaining enough protein to meet their needs.

The IOM determined that the estimated average requirement (EAR) for protein for the average adult aged 19-50 years is 0.66 g/kg/day (IOM, 2005). They increased the EAR to set the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) at 0.8 g/kg/day which is intended to cover the needs of 97–98% of the population.

Women Have the Same RDA as Men

Given that women have, on average, a lower percentage of lean body mass than men, it might be surprising that they have the same RDA for protein (and amino acids). In setting the RDAs, the IOM says (IOM, 2005, p. 644):

Although the data indicate that women have a lower nitrogen requirement than men per kilogram of body weight, this was only statistically significant when all studies were included, but not when the analysis was restricted to the primary data sets. This difference may be due to differences in body composition between men and women, with women and men having on average 28 and 15 percent fat mass, respectively. When controlled for lean body mass, no gender differences in the protein requirements were found. However, in view of the uncertain significance of the difference between the genders, the same protein EAR on a body weight basis for both men and women is chosen.

Criticism of the Protein RDA

A group of researchers from The Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto (Elango, 2010) argue that the methods for determining the RDA for protein underestimates needs. One of the authors, Dr. Paul B. Pencharz, was a member of the Panel on DRIs for macronutrients and a member of the Joint WHO/FAO/United Nations University Expert Consultation on Protein and Amino Acid Requirements in Human Nutrition. Elango et al. write:

The current recommendations for protein intakes in adults are primarily based on the reanalysis of existing nitrogen balance studies. The nitrogen balance technique has inherent methodological limitations, which lead to an underestimation of the requirement estimate. Furthermore, the application of a single linear regression analysis to identify zero nitrogen balance is not appropriate because the nitrogen intake response relationship is not linear. On the basis of these concerns, we reanalyzed published nitrogen balance studies using two-phase linear regression analysis. We also applied the [isotope-based indicator amino acid oxidation (IAAO)] method to determine total protein requirements in adults. The mean and population-safe intakes based on the reanalysis were determined to be 0.91 and 1.0 g protein/kg/day and 0.93 and 1.2 g/kg/day, respectively, based on the IAAO method. These new values are approximately 40% higher than the current recommendations, and therefore, there is an urgent need to reassess recommendations for protein intake in adult humans.

This group of researchers considers the average protein requirement to be 0.91–0.93 g/kg/day and the amount to cover 97%–98% of the population to be 1.0–1.2 g/kg/day.

Protein Needs for People Over 60

Some researchers argue that people over 60 years old are less efficient at maintaining muscle and bone and therefore are healthier on 1.0–1.3 g/kg/day of protein (Gaffney-Stomberg, 2009, Paddon-Jones, 2008, Morais, 2006), with some of this research being supported by or connected to animal agriculture trade organizations (Gaffney-Stomberg, 2009, Paddon-Jones, 2008).

There is some conflicting research. A randomized trial of 92 men (average age 73 years) found no difference in lean body mass, muscle performance, physical function, well-being, or anabolic response to testosterone between those who consumed 0.8 g/kg/day and those who consumed 1.3 g/kg/day of protein for 6 months (Bhasin, 2018).

Protein Needs of Athletes

The RDA doesn’t include a higher protein recommendation for athletes. However, in a joint position paper on nutrition and athletic performance, the American College of Sports Medicine, the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, and Dietitians of Canada recommend 1.2 to 2.0 g/kg/day for athletes (Thomas, 2016). They don’t differentiate between strength and endurance athletes.

A meta-analysis of protein intake among strength athletes concluded that a daily protein intake of 1.6 g/kg/day, separated into 0.25 g/kg doses, is sufficient for muscle protein synthesis (Morton, 2018).

For a more thorough discussion of the protein needs of vegans who lift weights, see Weightlifting for Vegans.

Protein and Amino Acid Content of Selected Plant Foods

See our online spreadsheet, Protein and Amino Acid Content of Selected Plant Foods.

Good Sources of Lysine among Plant Foods

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) defines a “good source” of a nutrient as 10% to 19% of the DRI or Daily Value (FDA, 2023). Because vegans might have slightly higher protein needs than non-vegans, we’ll use the midpoint (14.5%). Using a reference body weight of 70 kg for men and 57 kg for women (IOM, 2005, p. 680), a “good source” of lysine contains 350 mg per serving. Here’s a list of good sources of lysine (weights are for one serving of ready-to-eat food) and listed in ours section above, Additional Tips.

Plant Protein Balance Research

How much protein do vegans need?

The IOM says, “In conclusion, available evidence does not support recommending a separate protein requirement for vegetarians who consume complementary mixtures of plant proteins (p. 662, IOM, 2005).”

But what is the evidence?

Nitrogen Balance Study on Vegans

There has been only one nitrogen balance study conducted on vegans.

Bartholamae and Johnston (USA, 2023) performed a nitrogen balance study on 18 minimally active, healthy male vegans aged 31.6 ± 6.2 years. They fed them a diet with a protein content of 0.8 g/kg/d. Nitrogen balance was determined after 5 days using the equation:

nitrogen balance (g/d) = (protein intake (g/d) / 6.25) − urine urea nitrogen (UUN) (g/d) − 4 g/d

The mean absolute nitrogen balance was −1.38 ± 1.22 g/d, and was statistically lower than the nitrogen equilibrium score of zero (95% CI: −2.00 to −0.75), indicating that the average vegan wasn’t in nitrogen balance. Only 3 vegans appeared to be in positive nitrogen balance.

There were some limitations to this study. Instead of measuring non-UUN nitrogen losses directly, they used a factor of 4 g/d. They also allowed only 5 days for an adaptation feeding period which is on the short end of standard protocol.

Another limitation is that the equation for nitrogen balance used the typical protein nitrogen conversion factor of 6.25. The protein nitrogen conversion factor is the amount of protein typically represented from an amount of protein. Using a protein nitrogen conversion factor of 6.25 for plant proteins has been criticized (Mariotti, 2008, Craddock, 2021); Mariotti et al. recommends using a protein nitrogen conversion factor of 5.6 rather than 6.25 for mixed diets using animal and plant protein.

In our spreadsheet, Bartholomae & Johnston’s nitrogen balance study on vegans, we recalculated the average nitrogen balance results using a conversion factor of 5.6 which results in a nitrogen balance of -0.25 g/d (95% CI: -0.87 to 0.38). Because Bartholamae and Johnston provide a sample menu used in the study, we were also able to create a conversion factor of 5.435 based on data provided by Mariotti, 2008. Using a conversion factor of 5.435 results in a nitrogen balance of 0.08 g/day (95% CI: -0.54 to 0.71). Although these are just estimates, they indicate that the vegans, on average, were likely close to nitrogen balance.

The RDA for protein is supposed to cover the needs of 97–98% of a population and so while the average vegan in this study was probably close to nitrogen balance on 0.8 g/kg/d of protein, this amount of protein probably isn’t enough to cover the needs of 97-98% of non-athletic vegans.

Nitrogen Balance Studies using Plant Protein

Doyle et al. (1965) conducted a study in two stages. In the first stage, eight young men were fed a vegan diet with 0.50 g/kg/day of protein and an amino acid profile matching milk. Unsurprisingly, on such a low protein intake, the men weren’t in nitrogen balance. In the second stage, protein was increased to 0.75 g/kg/day using 0.25 g/kg/day of soy protein and the men were, for the most part, in nitrogen balance.

Register et al. (1967) fed a vegan diet of 0.91 g/kg/day of protein, of which 0.55 g/kg/day was legume protein, to participants for 3 weeks. On the vegan diet, 9 out of 12 of the participants were in nitrogen balance. They also found that the protein on a vegan diet was 2.6% less digested than the protein on a non-vegetarian diet.

A third study placed young men on a near-vegan diet (except for 41 g of dried, skim milk) for 90 days, using 1 g/kg/day of protein(Yáñez, 1986). Some of the protein was from legumes (amount not reported). Seven out of the 8 subjects were in nitrogen balance.

Serum Albumin Studies of People on Plant-Based Diets

Albumin is a protein in the blood that responds to different amounts of dietary protein and can be used to measure protein needs.

Caso et al. (2000) found a 12% reduced rate of albumin synthesis among men eating a diet for 10 days of 63% plant protein compared to 26% plant protein; total protein was 78 g/day. Albumin synthesis returned to normal after 18 g/day of soy protein was added, increasing plant protein to 78% and total protein to 96 g/day. Participants were eating about 1.09 g/kg/day without the soy and 1.34 g/kg/day with the soy. The synthesis of two other proteins, prealbumin and transferrin, were also lower on the diet with 63% plant protein. The lower synthesis of transferrin, an iron transport protein, is interesting because lysine supplements have been found to increase iron absorption.

In a cross-sectional study, Haddad et al. (1999) found vegans (10 men and 15 women) to have significantly higher serum albumin levels than non-vegetarians. We estimated the protein intake of vegans to be 0.93 g/kg/day (calculations); 10 of the 15 vegan women didn’t meet the protein RDA of 0.8 g/kg/day. The authors stated, “Although serum albumin may not be a sensitive indicator of protein nutriture, the higher concentrations suggest that the diets of the vegan participants were adequate in protein.”

Creatinine Clearance Study on Vegans

Using data collected during the 1980s, Andrich et al. (2011) found similar muscle mass among vegan and non-vegan middle-aged women despite differences in protein intake of 1.0 g/kg/day for vegans and 1.3 g/kg/day for omnivores. Muscle mass was estimated using formulas based on creatinine clearance (a byproduct of muscle metabolism).

The vegan women’s lysine intake of 30 mg/kg/day didn’t meet the RDA of 38 mg/kg/day. However, the study estimated vegan women to be consuming an average of only 1,511 kcal/day vs. 1,866 kcal/day for the omnivores despite similar body mass indexes (20.0 and 20.7 respectively), suggesting that food intake for the vegans was underestimated possibly due to a lack of data on vegan foods.

Summary of Plant Protein Balance Research

The results of protein balance studies of people on plant-based diets is compiled in the table below. It’s not obvious what they indicate for the protein needs of vegans, but an estimate is that vegans might benefit from at least 1.0 g/kg/day of protein.

Amino Acid Intakes and Blood Levels of Vegans

Researchers from EPIC-Oxford analyzed the dietary intake and blood levels of amino acids in various diet groups in adult men (Schmidt, 2015). The study included 98 men for each diet group (vegan, lacto-ovo-vegetarian, pescatarian, and meat-eater). On average, participants had followed their diet for several years.

Protein and Amino Acid Intakes of Vegan Men

The vegan men in Schmidt et al.’s analysis of EPIC-Oxford were eating 0.85 g/kg/day of protein (calculations). Although the men were apparently healthy, protein balance wasn’t measured. It should also be noted that the protein and amino acid intakes were measured by a food frequency questionnaire which the authors say might have underestimated the intakes of vegans.

The table below compares vegan amino acid intakes in EPIC-Oxford to the United States RDA for amino acids.

 
Vegan men met the RDA for all essential amino acids.

Lysine was the limiting amino acid in the diets of the vegan men; they surpassed the RDA by only 9%. The 95% confidence interval for lysine intake was 2.69-2.95 g/day, with a lower margin of 104% of the RDA.

The vegan men surpassed the RDA for methionine by the next lowest amount of 33%. Methionine is traditionally the amino acid of second most concern in vegan diets.

Vegans in the United States might eat higher amounts of protein than those in the United Kingdom. The Adventist Health Study-2 from the United States found an average protein intake of 71 g/day for men and women combined (Average Nutrient Intakes), considerably more than the 58 g/day of this subset of men in EPIC-Oxford (Schmidt, 2015).

Amino Acid Intakes of Vegan Women

As a percentage of body weight, the RDA for protein and amino acids is the same for women as for men.

Vegan women in EPIC-Oxford ate 56 g of protein per day (Average Nutrient Intakes), only marginally less than vegan men Schmidt et al.’s subset of EPIC-Oxford, and so their amino acid intakes are likely similar.

As with men, Seventh-day Adventist vegan women in the United States most likely eat more protein than vegan women in the United Kingdom (Average Nutrient Intakes), suggesting that Seventh-day Adventist vegan women are surpassing the RDA for lysine and other amino acids.

A study of Danish vegans (Aaslyng, 2023) found that a high percentage of the participants (36 women, 4 men) didn’t meet the recommendations for protein and some essential amino acids. Although 3-day diet records were used, which are typically a reliable method to estimate intakes, energy appeared to be significantly underestimated with 55% of the participants not meeting recommendations (despite an average body mass index of 24.8). Had food intake not been underestimated, a high percentage of participants would have likely been shown to meet recommendations given that only one participant who met energy recommendations failed to also meet protein recommendations.

Amino Acid Plasma Levels of Vegan Men

Schmidt et al. (2015) compared the plasma levels of amino acids between diet groups. Vegans had lower levels of lysine, methionine, tryptophan, and tyrosine, and higher levels of alanine and glycine. The researchers didn’t seem concerned by these differences.

The table below compares the plasma levels of amino acids of vegan men in Epic-Oxford to the reference ranges given by the U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM). The NLM notes that these numbers are dependent on the specific laboratory methods used (NLM, 2016).

 
Vegans had levels higher than the reference range for alanine, glutamate, glycine, leucine, ornithine (a non-protein amino acid), phenylalanine, and serine; aspartate was also higher, but the reference range is surprisingly low. It’s unclear if these elevated levels have clinical significance.

Arginine and the Vegan Diet

People with herpes are often advised to limit their intake of the amino acid arginine in order to reduce symptoms. EPIC-Oxford found vegans to have a non-significant trend toward lower levels of arginine in the blood and also a lower arginine intake than meat-eaters (3.92 g/day for vegans, 4.13 g/day for meat-eaters); lacto-ovo vegetarians had the lowest intake at 3.36 g/day (Schmidt, 2015).

Appendix A: Protein Quality Scoring

One of the earliest ways to assess protein quality was the protein efficiency ratio (PER) which determined a score based on the growth of rats fed different proteins. The PER was criticized both for using rats and for not taking into account protein maintenance needs which led to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations recommending other ways to determine protein quality.

FAO Recommends the PDCAAS in 1989

In 1989, the FAO recommended replacing the PER with the protein digestibility–corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) as the “most suitable regulatory method for evaluating protein quality of foods and infant formulas (p. 42, FAO, 1991).” The FAO considered the PDCAAS to be an improvement over the PER because the PDCAAS based protein scores on the needs of humans, specifically preschool-age children (p. 8, FAO, 1991).

The PDCAAS ranks a food’s protein quality based on its limiting amino acid which is the essential amino acid that the protein contains the least amount of in comparison to the reference protein, typically the milk protein casein (p.5, FAO, 1991). The PDCAAS scores each essential amino acid in a protein and then uses the lowest PDCAAS score for the overall protein, truncated at 1.00 (p. 35, FAO, 1991):

(mg of limiting amino acid in 1 g of test protein / mg of same amino acid in 1 g of reference protein ) x fecal true protein digestibility percentage

Table 11 (p. 39, FAO, 1991) provides the PDCAAS scores known by the FAO at the time. Only three animal foods are listed: casein (1.00), egg white (1.00), and beef (0.92). There are just over a dozen familiar plant proteins listed and their PDCAAS scores range from 0.26 to 0.69.

Although the PDCAAS ranks proteins according to the needs of humans, it’s been criticized for calculating amino acid absorption, aka digestibility, based on a protein fecal analysis of rats (Schaafsma, 2000). Rat digestion is different from humans and a fecal analysis doesn’t take into account that bacteria in the colon can change the amino acid composition of the feces. The FAO recommended changing from fecal digestibility to ileal digestibility when agreed upon procedures and sufficient data are available (p. 32, FAO, 1991).

The FAO implied that some of the PDCAAS might be based on human digestibility studies; they say “when human balance studies cannot be used, the standardized rat faecal-balance method of Eggum or McDonough et al. is recommended (p. 31, FAO, 1991).” But the abstracts for the citations of the PDCAAS scores given in Table 11 (p. 39, FAO, 1991) don’t indicate that any human data was used.

The PDCAAS has also been criticized for truncating protein scores at 1.00 which prevents the score from reflecting a food’s ability to complement other foods in the diet (Schaafsma, 2000). Only animal foods have PDCAAS scores high enough to be truncated.

The 1991 FAO report relied mostly on data by Sarwar and colleagues in listing the PDCAASs of foods (p. 39, FAO, 1991). Sarwar later published a paper suggesting that the PDCAAS method overestimates the quality of proteins for foods containing anti-nutritional factors (Sarwar, 1997) which are primarily plant foods.

FAO Recommends the DIAAS in 2011

In 2011, the FAO Expert Consultation on Protein Quality Evaluation in Human Nutrition was held to review the adequacy of the PDCAAS (FAO, 2013). The panel recommended changing how proteins are scored from the PDCAAS to the digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS). The DIAAS uses the digestibility of specific amino acids rather than of entire proteins.

The DIAAS for a food is the lowest score for any of the essential amino acids (p. 3, FAO, 2013):

100 x (mg of digestible dietary indispensable amino acid in 1 g of the dietary protein / mg of the same dietary indispensable amino acid in 1 g of the reference protein)

DIAAS scores are not truncated at 100%. The ileal digestibility of each amino acid is preferably determined in humans, followed by growing pigs, and then growing rats (p. 4, FAO, 2013).

For infants, the DIAAS reference protein is the amino acid pattern found in human breast milk. For non-infants the DIASS uses a reference protein based on the needs of humans. Appendix B: The DIAAS Reference Protein explains how they calculated the reference protein.

The FAO provides few examples of DIAAS scores. Table 6 (p. 44, FAO, 2013) provides a DIAAS score for whole milk powder (122), wheat (40), and peas (64).

Criticism of the DIAAS

Craddock et al. (2021) published a list of critiques of the DIAAS with respect to plant-based diets.

Much of Craddock et al.’s criticism focuses on the digestibility of plant foods which they argue is underestimated by the DIAAS. They cite Tomé D. (2013) whose review paper provides a table of ileal food digestibility in humans. Rather than being markedly lower in digestibility than animal protein, Craddock et al. point out that “soy protein isolate, pea protein isolate, pea protein flour, wheat flour, and lupin flour exhibited 89–92% digestibility, approximating values of 90–95% for eggs, meat, and milk proteins.”

Here’s a list of Craddock et al.’s criticisms with brief explanations:

• Nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors influence animal and plant foods differently.
  • The ratio of essential amino acids to total protein can be underestimated for plant foods when PDCAAS and DIAAS scores are calculated because the FAO doesn’t require food-specific nitrogen-to-protein conversion factors when determining the amount of protein in a food.
• There’s a limited number of fruits and vegetables within the DIAAS.
  • Many plant foods won’t be included in an assessment of an entire diet because most don’t have DIAAS scores.
• A DIAAS diet score is of questionable relevance to those following plant-based dietary patterns in developed nations.
  • Plant-based diets in food-secure regions will easily meet the needs for total essential amino acids. (In this criticism, Craddock et al. treat total essential amino acids as a whole and don’t analyze individual amino acids.)
• DIASS scores are based on animal digestion.
  • Digestibility of amino acids in rats and pigs cannot be extrapolated to humans. (The FAO admits that rats are not an ideal model, but says that pig digestion approximates humans while obtaining human data for a wide range of foods is impractical.)
• DIAAS scores for foods change when they’re part of a mixed diet.
  • In mixed diets, the digestibility of proteins and amino acids changes, while DIAAS scores are based only on single foods and give animal foods an inflated advantage.
• Digestibility of plant foods improves with heat treatment and processing.
  • Raw foods are used for most DIAAS scoring, whereas protein-rich plant foods are typically cooked or processed making them easier to digest.
• The DIAAS scores were never intended for athletes consuming a plant-based diet.
  • The FAO endorsed the DIAAS as a tool to help the global population avoid malnutrition by meeting protein requirements but hasn’t endorsed the DIASS for ranking proteins on the basis of their muscle-building potential. Craddock et al. cite research suggesting that proteins with higher DIASS scores don’t increase muscle hypertrophy.

Craddock et al. conclude that “emphasizing protein quality in developed nations is unproductive.” They say that if protein quality is to be assessed, the PDCAAS is the most suitable tool for use in Western adults who eat a plant-based diet.

It’s not clear why Craddock et al. believe that the PDCAAS is superior to the DIASS given that most of their critique of the DIASS would similarly apply to the PDCAAS. Perhaps they prefer the PDCAAS because it truncates animal protein scores at 1.00.

Appendix B: The DIAAS Reference Protein

Because it’s hard to follow how the FAO determined the DIAAS reference protein for non-infants, I’ve included more details here which require following along with the tables in their document.

For non-infants, the reference protein used in DIAAS scoring is a calculation of the amino acid needs, represented in Table 3 (p. 27, FAO, 2013) and narrowed down in Table 5 (p. 29, FAO, 2013).

The numbers in the bottom section of Table 5, Scoring pattern mg/g protein requirement, are calculated by multiplying the sum of the Maintenance and the Growth factor by the Amino acid requirements. The numbers derived in Table 3 (p. 27, FAO, 2013) are taken from a 2007 FAO report which explains how they’re calculated (FAO 2007).

In the 2007 FAO report, Table 23 (p. 150) lists the mean adult requirement for each amino acid as determined by the committee based on a variety of methods and sources, typically human nitrogen balance studies in which specific amino acids are limited. The FAO’s 2007 amino acid requirements for adults don’t match the IOM’s estimated average requirement (EAR), but are relatively close.

Appendix C: Muscle Synthesis Studies

Summary: This appendix covers muscle synthesis studies using a vegan diet that weren’t conducted in a sports nutrition context. These studies found, among older adults, lower muscle synthesis after a plant-based meal compared to a meat-containing meal but similar muscle synthesis over the course of a 10-day vegan diet that was high in protein (103 g per day). More research is needed before conclusions can be drawn.

Muscle Synthesis During a 10-day Vegan Diet

After performing a study on muscle synthesis after a plant-based meal and finding that muscle synthesis was lower than after a meat-containing meal (details below in Muscle Synthesis after a Meal Containing Beef or Plant Protein), the same group of researchers compared muscle synthesis rates in a crossover study in which older people ate a vegan diet and then an omnivore diet (or vice-versa) for 10 days each (Domić, 2024, The Netherlands). Muscle synthesis was no different on a vegan diet than on an omnivore diet.

The vegan diet in this study contained an average of 103 g of protein per day. This high amount of protein was in part from using high-protein meat alternatives and is significantly higher than what’s been found to be the case for typical vegan diets of 56-71 g of protein per day (see our article, Average Nutrient Intakes). For this reason, we can’t use this study to assume most older vegans are receiving an amount of protein that will result in as much muscle synthesis as a typical omnivore diet.

Two limitations of this study was that it didn’t measure muscle protein breakdown and can’t be assumed to necessarily be an accurate picture of muscle retention. Also, these older people were considered highly physically active based on large amounts of walking per day, which the researchers said was conducive for muscle synthesis.

Muscle Synthesis after a Meal Containing Beef or Plant Protein

Pinckaers et al. (2023, The Netherlands) conducted a crossover trial which provided 8 older males and 8 older females (average age of 72 years) a meal containing beef or a meal containing plant protein from whole plant foods. Each meal contained 0.45 g per kg of bodyweight (roughly about 36 g of protein); the meals had relatively similar essential amino acid (EAA) contents.

The animal-based meal resulted in a higher increase of EAAs in the blood, higher leucine levels, and higher markers of muscle protein and whole body protein synthesis. Markers of muscle protein synthesis, on average, actually decreased during the six hour post-meal period for the plant-based meal (as indicated by Figure 7 of the paper).

The authors summarize their concern:

Though we support the concept of moving toward a more plant-based diet for ethical, environmental, and health considerations, there are some concerns with regards to maintaining muscle health later in life. A more plant-based diet will likely provide health benefits, with many of those secondary to a low(er) energy intake due to the high fiber content and satiating effect of consuming more plant-based whole foods. However, the anabolic properties of each main meal may be of key relevance to stimulate muscle protein synthesis rates and, as such, to support muscle maintenance. This may be of particular importance for older adults, as the age-related loss in muscle mass is at least partly attributed to the attenuated postprandial muscle protein synthetic response to acute feeding in older compared with younger subjects.

A limitation of this study is that they didn’t measure changes in muscle mass which are more important than markers of muscle synthesis. Other research, by Michell et al. (2023, Canada) found no association between post-meal markers of muscle synthesis and muscle mass after resistance exercise. Mitchell et al. write, “Clearly, however, acute early measures of [muscle protein synthesis] are not proxy measures for hypertrophy or hypertrophic potential within the same individual.”

Appendix D: Wound Healing in Vegans

Posso et al. (United States, 2025) conducted a review of studies examining the impact of wound healing in vegans and vegetarians. They reviewed eight studies (six from Italy, one from India, and one from Turkey), published between 2019 and 2022.

The studies measured wound healing after various types of skin surgeries, using a variety of scoring methods and clinical outcomes. Most of the studies had a small sample size and researchers were concerned that vegan or vegetarian patients were following an unbalanced diet. But the findings were consistent in that all studies showed vegans or vegetarians to have some level of poorer wound healing than omnivores.

The studies measured various nutrient-related levels. Vitamin B12 levels in vegetarians were consistently lower than in omnivores (approximately 200 pg/ml vs. 350 pg/ml), but still high enough that it seems unlikely to impact healing. The review doesn’t indicate that any attempt was made to correlate nutrient levels with outcomes.

Posso et al. don’t report protein or zinc intakes, so it’s unlikely the studies measured them.

In How dietary protein intake promotes wound healing, Nancy Collins, PhD, RD, LD/N, FAPWCA, and Allison Schnitzer (2014) say:

It’s known that adequate protein is crucial for proper wound healing, but the precise amount isn’t established. Postsurgically, 1 to 1.5 g protein/kg is recommended, but this may vary with the extent of the surgical wound. For patients with pressure ulcers, the recommendation is also 1 to 1.5 g/kg; those with deep ulcers or multiple pressure-ulcer sites may need 1.5 to 2 g/kg. For patients with large burn wounds, protein requirements sometimes reach 1.5 to 3 g/kg to offset extensive protein loss through urine and burn-wound exudate.

Vegans in the EPIC-Oxford study had an average protein intake of 0.9 to 1.0 g/kg (Sobiecki, 2016). This suggests that vegans in the wound healing studies likely had an intake of protein near or below the lower recommended range for wound healing. The simplest explanation for the poorer wound healing among vegans is that they weren’t eating ideal amounts of protein.

Vegan zinc intakes can also be marginal without supplementation. A zinc intake low enough to impact wound healing also seems likely, but wasn’t measured in Passo et al.’s review.

Vegans with wounds should pay particular attention to obtaining ample amounts of protein and may want to consider taking a zinc supplement of approximately the RDA (11 mg for men, 8 mg for women), in addition to obtaining the typical nutrients of concern in vegan diets (see Nutrition Tips for Vegans).

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This article was originally published on veganhealth.org.

• Summary
• Introduction—Why the Fuss?
• The Isoflavones
• Soy Servings
• Soy Foods
• Benefits of Soy
  • Lowering Cholesterol
  • Prostate Cancer
  • Menopausal Symptoms
• All-Cause Mortality
• Asian Intakes
  • Japan
  • China
  • Singapore
  • Korea
  • Fermentation
• Breast Cancer
  • Reviews
  • Meta-analyses
  • Retrospective Studies
  • Observational Studies of Women Initially without Cancer
  • Observational Studies with Higher Soy Intakes
  • Breast Cancer Survival and Recurrence
  • Breast Tissue and Nipple Aspirate
• Thyroid
  • Introduction
  • Reviews
  • Primary Studies
  • Secondary Studies
• Infant Formula
  • Research on Soy Formula and Health
  • Feeding Pre-Term Infants
  • Feeding Infants with Thyroid Issues
• Cognition
  • Long-term Studies
  • Clinical Trials
  • Conclusion
• Hexane
• Mineral Absorption
  • Calcium
  • Zinc
  • Iron
  • Magnesium
  • Fermentation
• Feminizing Characteristics
  • Gynecomastia aka Male Breasts
  • Sperm Health
  • Review
• Endometrium
• Ovarian Function
• Fertility
• Glutamate
• Hypospadias
• References

Summary

There is a great deal of controversy surrounding soy foods, mostly due to their isoflavones which can bind to estrogen receptors and affect thyroid hormone.

There is significant evidence that eating moderate amounts (one to two servings per day) of traditional soy foods, whether fermented or not, can reduce the risk of prostate cancer and can lower LDL cholesterol.

People have been concerned that moderate amounts of soy could increase the risk of breast cancer or be harmful to women with breast cancer, especially if their cancer is estrogen receptor positive. However, the research to date has been quite reassuring, showing mostly benefits for breast cancer prevention.

Everyone who eats soy should make sure they are getting enough iodine. People with hypothyroidism might need their synthetic thyroid hormone dosage adjusted if they start eating more soy due to the possibility that soy might interfere with it. There is some concern that eating soy could push some people with subclinical hypothyroidism into overt hypothyroidism, so limiting soy for such people might be a good idea.

Soy infant formula has been shown to be safe except possibly for infants with congenital hypothyroidism, whose thyroid function should be monitored. Soy formula is not intended for pre-term infants.

While one observational study found that tempeh was linked to better cognition in older people, tofu has been associated with worse cognition. This is most likely due to confounding variables, including tofu being processed with formaldehyde in Indonesia. Many clinical studies have found that soy increases cognition. Unless you are in Indonesia, you do not need to worry about tofu harming cognition.

Some soy meats or foods containing isolated soy protein are processed with hexane and there may be small amounts of hexane residues in the final product. It is not known if this is harmful, but it might be a good idea to use soy foods from companies who do not use hexane in their processing methods (linked to below).

The phytates in soy can lower the absorption of calcium, zinc, iron, and magnesium. However, you do absorb these minerals from soy foods and eating moderate amounts of soy should not cause deficiencies.

At moderate amounts, soy does not cause feminine characteristics in men. At high amounts, as in twelve servings a day or more, a small percentage of men who are particularly sensitive to soy might develop tender, enlarged breast tissue.

Introduction—Why the Fuss?

By far, soy is the most controversial of plant foods, with gluten taking a distant second place.

Much of the controversy is due to some fairly unique components of soy, isoflavones. Isoflavones are also called phytoestrogens or “plant estrogens”, because they can attach to estrogen receptors in cells. The estrogenicity of soy has raised questions of potential benefits, such as for bone health of post-menopausal women, as well as concerns such as for women with estrogen receptor positive breast cancer.

In addition to the isoflavones, soy also contains phytates that can bind minerals and lower their absorption from foods.

Between 1990 and 2010, there were over 10,000 peer-reviewed journal articles on soy (122). A large percentage of these were conducted in animals which can make the results irrelevant to humans because species differ in how they metabolize soy isoflavones and because the amount of isoflavones given to the animals is often much greater than any human would eat. This much research makes soy one of the most researched foods and also increases the chances of finding results that are outliers – studies that by random chance, or the inability to control variables, could show soy to be harmful (or helpful) when it actually is not. The large number of studies allow people who want to make a case against soy to simply highlight a handful when the bulk of research provides a different view. Of course, someone could make a case in favor of soy in the same way. It is, therefore, important to perform a comprehensive review of the research on any given topic, which I do below for the most important controversies surrounding the potential harm of soy foods.

The Isoflavones

Because some studies look at individual isoflavones, I will give a little background on them. Table 1 shows the breakdown of the typical isoflavone components of soy foods.

In addition to the three main soy isoflavones, there is a fourth isoflavone-related compound, equol, that is produced from daidzin by bacteria that about 25% of Westerners and 50% of Asians and vegetarians have in their digestive tracts (130). Equol has somewhat more estrogenic activity than daidzein and genistein, which has made comparing equol producers the subject of some specific research referenced below.

The isoflavones in soy foods are absorbed almost exactly the same as from supplements (131). After ingesting isoflavones, blood concentrations of genistein and daidzein peak after 5.5 and 7.4 hours respectively; they have a half-life of about 8 hours, meaning 50% will be gone after 8 hours, 75% after 16 hours, and 88% after a day (132). However, if you eat them daily, you will have some in your blood all the time.

There are other isoflavones, the most studied of which are the isoflavones in red clover. These are not the same isoflavones as found in soy.

Soy Servings

In the research discussed here, soy is typically described in grams of protein or milligrams of isoflavones. Less frequently, soy is described in grams of total soy foods. To make things more complicated, sometimes the participants in research are given only soy protein concentrate (about 65% protein), the isolated soy protein (about 90% protein), and sometimes only isolated isoflavones.

A rough guide is that one serving of soy equals 1 cup of soymilk, or 1/2 cup of tofu, tempeh, soybeans, or soy meats. This is the rough equivalent of about 8 to 10 grams of soy protein and 25 mg of isoflavones. The more processed soy meats tend to have more protein (but fewer isoflavones per gram of protein).

Soy Foods

Some people who write about soy suggest that fermented soy foods are the most healthy, and that isolated soy proteins are the most unhealthy. Fermented soy foods are tempeh, miso, and natto. As will be discussed below, for the most part, the evidence does not suggest that fermented soy foods are healthier than traditional non-fermented soy foods (such as tofu and soymilk). And much of the research on soy showing benefits has been performed on isolated soy protein.

In the United States, whole soybeans are usually eaten in the form of edamame, tempeh, or soy nuts. Many, but not all, soy meats, as well as texturized soy protein, are made from soy protein concentrate or isolated soy protein. Turtle Island, the makers of Tofurky, use pressed tofu to create their soy meats.

Benefits of Soy

I do not attempt to comprehensively review the benefits of soy in this article. Because they should also be considered, I will briefly cover them.

Lowering Cholesterol

A 2006 review of six meta-analyses on soy and cholesterol levels concluded, “In summary, the systematic reviews suggest that the effect of [a diet containing isolated soy protein with] around 90 mg/day of isoflavones is to reduce LDL cholesterol modestly (by around 5%), without clear effects on triglycerides or HDL cholesterol.” (125)

Prostate Cancer

A 2009 meta-analysis on soy and prostate cancer found that soy, in the highest versus lowest intake categories, was associated with a statistically significant, 26% reduction in prostate cancer risk (0.74, 0.63-0.89) (1). When separately analyzed, studies on non-fermented soy foods yielded a reduced risk of 30% (0.70, 0.56-0.88), and fermented soy foods were not associated with a decreased (or increased) risk of prostate cancer. It should be noted that the highest intake categories in these studies tended to be low, with most being less than one serving per day.

Menopausal Symptoms

A 2009 paper from the 8th International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention and Treatment reported that soy isoflavone supplements containing at least 15 mg of genistein per day have been consistently effective at reducing hot flashes (126). If that much genistein is not provided, then there is little benefit, and is the reason why previous reviews, such as a 2006 meta-analysis (5), provided mixed results.

All-Cause Mortality

A 2019 meta-analysis of 23 prospective studies found a significant inverse relationship between soy intake and all-cause mortality (137). Furthermore, higher soy isoflavone intake was associated with a 10% decrease in all-cause mortality (137).

Asian Intakes

Japan and China have lower rates of heart disease and many cancers than do Westerners. People have suggested this could be due to the soy in their diet. In response, soy opponents have often argued that the traditional Asian intake of soy is much lower than is commonly thought. Typical Asian intakes of soy vary among countries and areas. In Japan and Shanghai, China, average intakes are about 1.5 servings per day, but many people consume an average of two or more servings per day. About half the soy eaten in Asia is not fermented.

Below is a review of soy intakes in various Asian countries as described in the 2006 paper by Messina et al, Estimated Asian adult soy protein and isoflavone intakes (116).

Japan

Food disappearance data from the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) show that daily per capita soy protein intake for Japan between 1961 and 2002 remained constant, and ranged from a high of 9.7 g/day in 1961 to a low of 8.4 g/day in 1977.

The Japanese National Nutrition Survey (NNS) showed that soy intake remained fairly constant after 1960 at about 65 g/day. However, 65 g/day provides approximately 6.5 g of soy protein, which is about 25% lower than the FAO estimate. The total soy food intake of Japanese adults aged 60–69 years is 91.7 g/day, approximately 50% higher than the mean intake of the overall Japanese population.

In recently conducted surveys of individuals in Japan that reported soy protein intake, daily adult female soy protein intake ranged from 6.0 to 10.5 g/day; the male range was 8.0 to 11.3 g/day. Average isoflavone intake ranged from 22 to 54 mg per day among food frequency surveys, and two studies from Japan suggest that approximately 5% of adults consume as much as 100 mg of isoflavones per day. Three studies show that the upper range (rather than the average) of soy protein intake is 16 to 18 g/day.

One study reported that isoflavone intake among subjects from a rural village was similar to that reported for urban Japanese.

China

Women from the Chinese city of Shanghai have soy intakes about the same as Japan – about 9-10 g/day of soy protein. Isoflavone intake ranged from 33 to 41 mg/day in three studies.

Studies from Hong Kong reported adult female daily soy protein intakes to be 4.9 g/day (2000) and 7.9 g/day (2003). Isoflavone intake ranged from 6 to 30 mg/day in four studies. One study found the upper quartile of women to be consuming 19 g of soy protein per day.

There is evidence to suggest that people in other areas of China may have considerably lower soy intakes, since the national average for total soy food intake in China for 1990 to 1998 was only 17.8 g/day, which represents an isoflavone intake of ≤ 10 mg/day.

Among Chinese women one study found that soymilk, tofu, and processed soy products other than tofu accounted for 81% of total soy protein intake consumed.

Singapore

Two studies from Singapore, from 2000 and 2002, show relatively low (≤ 5.1 g/day) soy protein intakes. One of those studies showed isoflavone intake to be 16 mg/day; the other didn’t report isoflavone intake.

Korea

A 2000 study found average daily isoflavone intake among Korean women aged 35 to 60 years to be 24.4 ± 25.1 mg/day. Intake among pre- and post-menopausal women was 21.8 and 30.1 mg/day, respectively. According to the Korean National Household Survey, the mean daily isoflavone intake (15.1 mg) of individuals living in large cities was almost identical to the isoflavone intake (15.2 mg) of individuals living in rural areas.

Fermentation

In both Japan and China, non-fermented foods provide approximately half of the total soy intake. In Shanghai, nearly all soy is non-fermented.

Breast Cancer

Summary: The vast majority of the evidence is that soy is either neutral or protective against breast cancer, including for women previously diagnosed with estrogen receptor positive breast cancer (tumors stimulated by estrogen contact). This evidence is mostly limited to amounts of two servings per day or less.

Breast Cancer—Reviews

In their article, Soy and Cancer Risk: Our Expert’s Advice, the American Cancer Society says:

So far, the evidence does not point to any dangers from eating soy in people, and the health benefits appear to outweigh any potential risk. In fact, there is growing evidence that eating traditional soy foods such as tofu, tempeh, edamame, miso, and soymilk may lower the risk of breast cancer, especially among Asian women. Soy foods are excellent sources of protein, especially when they replace other, less healthy foods such as animal fats and red or processed meats. Soy foods have been linked to lower rates of heart disease and may even help lower cholesterol.

In their 2010 review, Hilakivi-Clarke et al. sum up the evidence on soy and breast cancer (40):

Results reviewed here suggest that women consuming moderate amounts of soy throughout their life have lower breast cancer risk than women who do not consume soy; however, this protective effect may originate from soy intake early in life. We also review the literature regarding potential risks genistein poses for breast cancer survivors. Findings obtained in 2 recent human studies show that a moderate consumption of diet containing this isoflavone does not increase the risk of breast cancer recurrence in Western women, and Asian breast cancer survivors exhibit better prognosis if they continue consuming a soy diet.

Breast Cancer—Meta-Analyses

A 2019 dose-response meta-analysis of 23 prospective studies with a total of 330,826 participants found that both soy protein and soy isoflavones have a positive impact on breast cancer mortality (137). A 10 mg/day increase in soy isoflavone intake was associated with a 9% decreased risk of breast cancer mortality, and a 5 g/day increase in soy protein intake was associated with a 12% reduction in breast cancer death (137).

Breast Cancer—Retrospective Studies

In retrospective studies, past diets (provided by memory) of subjects with breast cancer are compared to those without breast cancer. Retrospective studies are less expensive and faster than following people prospectively (forward in time) but are considered less reliable due to inaccuracies in recalling past diet. They generally provide ideas of what connections to investigate prospectively. Nonetheless, the findings from the retrospective studies have shown soy to be either neutral or beneficial in protecting against breast cancer.

California-Hawaii Asian-American Study (2009)

This study looked at childhood soy exposure (18). Women in the top one-third of soy intake during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood had a lower risk of breast cancer than those in the lowest one-third, with the strongest, most consistent effect being for childhood intake. That authors suggest that, “Soy may be a hormonally related, early-life exposure that influences breast cancer incidence.”

Aichi Cancer Center Research Institute, Japan (2008)

This 2008 case control study from Japan found that soy consumption was linked with a significantly reduced risk of estrogen positive breast cancer (8). The risk for the top one-third was .74 (.58 – 0.94).

Nishio et al (2007) sums up the results of the previous restrospective studies (17):

“…seven studies showed no associations [between soy and breast cancer], one study showed protective effects, six studies showed protective associations only in premenopausal women, and one study found [protective] associations only in postmenopausal women.”

Breast Cancer Observational Studies of Women Initially without Cancer

In typical observational studies, you start with people who are apparently healthy and follow them prospectively, without any clinical intervention. The observational studies on soy and breast cancer can be divided into two groups—those done on populations with very low intakes and those done on populations with higher intakes.

The studies done on populations with very low intakes do not provide much evidence. Since 2001 there have been six observational studies on such populations. One of those studies, EPIC-Norfolk (2004), did find an association between soy intake and breast cancer, but the intake of soy was so small as to make the finding likely due to random chance.

EPIC-Norfolk, Phytoestrogens (2010)

The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), Norfolk chapter, measured phytoestrogen content of all foods (not only soy) and compared intakes to breast cancer rates (19). They found no association between phytoestrogens and breast cancer.

French Cohort (2006)

Women were followed from 1990-1991 through July 2002. No relationship between isoflavone intake and breast cancer risk was found. Isoflavone intake was extremely low with the highest group in the range of .03 to .1 mg/day (25).

EPIC-Norfolk (2004)

EPIC-Norfolk performed a nested case-control study measuring isoflavone intake and risk of breast cancer. Women were recruited from 1993-1997 and followed through July 2001 (20). Isoflavone intake was very low, with an average intake of .4 mg/day. Urine and serum isoflavone levels (taken at the beginning of the study) were compared to breast cancer rates. Exposure to equol and daidzein was associated with a statistically significant increased risk of breast cancer. This is the only prospective finding in which soy was associated with an increased risk of breast cancer; because the intakes of soy were so low, the finding is most likely an anomaly.

The Netherlands (2004)

This study found no association between soy intake and breast cancer. Intake of soy was very small, only 4.9 g of soy foods per day in the highest one-fourth (29).

California Teachers Study (2002)

This study, that took place in Los Angeles, found no association between soy intake and breast cancer, but it only had two years of follow-up and isoflavone intake was 2 mg/day at the 80th percentile – just a fraction of a serving per day (28).

The Netherlands (2001)

This nested case-control study found that urinary genistein levels collected 1 to 9 years before post-menopausal breast cancer was diagnosed was not associated with risk (27).

Observational Studies with Higher Soy Intakes

Of the studies done on populations with higher soy intakes (about one to two servings per day as a typical upper intake amount), the Singapore Chinese Health Study (21), the Shanghai Women’s Study (22, 23), and the Japan Public Health Center (26) study all found that higher intakes of soy were associated with a reduced risk of cancer. The Japan Collaborative Cohort Study (17) and the Japan Life Span Study (30) found no association. European Prospective Investigation into Cancer-Oxford (24) which contained a large number of vegetarians, also found no association, but this could be because exposure to soy might be more protective when breast tissue is developing during adolescence, while Western vegetarians often come to the diet as adults.

Singapore Chinese Health Study (2010)

This report of the Singapore Chinese Health Study was a bit different (than the 2008 report below) in that it examined dietary patterns, and not just soy intake (21). There were two diet patterns which had previously been identified as common among Asian women: “vegetable-fruit-soy” and “meat–dim sum.” The women were recruited from 1993 to 1998, had a median age of 55 years, and were followed through 2005. Women who ate closer to the vegetable-fruit-soy pattern had a lower risk of breast cancer, but this result was limited to women who were post-menopausal at the beginning of the study. There were a number of non-statistically significant trends towards less risk, including for soy and isoflavone intake, fruit intake, vegetable intake, and vegetable-fruit-soy intake for estrogen receptor positive breast cancer.

Shanghai Women’s Study (2009)

The Shanghai Women’s Study (SWS) found that among pre-menopausal women, higher soy intake was associated with a lower risk of breast cancer (23). A soy protein intake of 16 g/day was associated with an almost 60% reduced risk when compared to the lowest intake of soy protein of 3.5 g/day or less. SWS also surveyed soy intake during adolescence (based on the participants’ memory) and found it to be associated with a lower risk of pre-menopausal breast cancer.

Singapore Chinese Health Study (2008)

Women were recruited from 1993 to 1998 and followed through the end of 2005 (22). The women were divided into those eating less than 10.6 mg of isoflavones per 1,000 calories and those eating 10.6 mg or more. Women in the higher intake group had a lower risk of breast cancer (.82, .70-.97). When divided by pre- and post-menopausal, the post-menopausal women (only) had a lower risk (.74, .61 – .90). Post-menopausal women who ate more soy had a lower risk of estrogen receptor positive cancer (.67, .49–.91). The authors noted that “There are seven common soy products in the Singapore Chinese diet and all are nonfermented.”

EPIC-Oxford (2008)

EPIC-Oxford followed 37,600 British women, 31% of whom were vegetarian, for 7.4 years (24). There was no difference in risk of breast cancer between high isoflavone intake (average of 31.6 mg/day) and low isoflavone intake (.2 mg/day). No significant associations were observed when separated into pre- and post-menopausal groups.

Japan Collaborative Cohort Study (2007)

The Japan Collaborative Cohort Study found no correlation between the consumption of tofu, boiled beans, or miso soup and the risk of breast cancer (17).

Japan Public Health Center (2003)

The Japan Public Health Center-Based Prospective Study on Cancer and Cardiovascular Diseases found that people in the highest one-fourth of genistein intake of 24 mg/day had only half the risk of breast cancer compared to those in the lowest genistein intake of 7 mg/day (26). Those in the highest soyfoods intake category (“almost every day”) didn’t have a lower risk compared to those in the lowest (“less than 2 times per week”). Upon further analysis, the finding for isoflavones being protective was limited to post-menopausal women, for whom there was a 68% lower risk in the highest isoflavone intake category.

Life Span Study, Japan (1999)

The Life Span Study cohort in Hiroshima and Nagasaki found no association between tofu and miso with breast cancer risk. The highest soy intake category was 5 or more servings per week (30).

Breast Cancer Survival and Recurrence

The Women’s Healthy Eating and Living (2011) study is a randomized controlled trial of a high fruit-vegetable-fiber and low fat dietary intervention in early stage breast cancer survivors (121). It had a median follow-up of 7.3 years from the time of enrollment. Soy intake was measured post-diagnosis (median 2 years, range: 2 months to 4 years) using a food frequency questionnaire that included specific items for “Meat Substitutes (such as Tofu, Veggie Burgers),” and “Soy Milk”, as well as an opportunity to include other soy foods and supplements.

Isoflavone intake (the marker for soy) was unrelated to the risk of recurrence regardless of hormone receptor status or Tamoxifen use. No significant increased or decreased risk was associated with any specific level of intake. Risk of death tended to be lower as isoflavone intake increased (p for trend=0.02). Women at the highest levels of isoflavone intake (>16.3 mg/day isoflavones; equivalent to at least 1⁄2 cup soymilk or 2 oz tofu) had a non-significant 54% reduction in risk of death compared to the lowest one-fifth of soy intake.

The authors state:

Our study is the third epidemiological study to report no adverse effects of soy foods on breast cancer prognosis. These studies, taken together, which vary in ethnic composition (two from the US and one from China) and by level and type of soy consumption, provide the necessary epidemiological evidence that clinicians no longer need to advise against soy consumption for women diagnosed with breast cancer.

Of the other studies, one from the Cancer Hospital of Harbin Medical University, China (2010) (31), the Shanghai Breast Cancer Survival Study (2009) (11), and the Long Island Breast Cancer Study (2007) (32) found soy to be associated with a lower risk of breast cancer or death in some subgroups. Neither those studies nor the Shanghai Breast Cancer Study (2005) (33) or the Life After Cancer Epidemiology Study from Northern California and Utah (2009) (34) found any statistically significant increase in breast cancer, including among women with estrogen positive breast cancer (11, 33, 34).

Breast Tissue and Nipple Aspirate

Non-lactating nipple aspirate might be a risk for breast cancer, although the data is mixed, and it is likely that what is more important is whether certain types of cells are found in the aspirate (129).

There have been three studies measuring the effects of soy on nipple aspirate. One was conducted in women diagnosed with breast cancer and it found increased aspirate after two weeks in the high soy diet, although there was no increase in breast cell proliferation (35). In two longer term studies of six months on women without a diagnosis of breast cancer, one study found increased nipple aspirate in women while on a higher soy diet of 45 mg of isoflavones per day (there was no placebo group) (37). The other found no increase in nipple aspirate on the high soy diet (2 servings per day) when compared to the low soy diet (< 3 servings per week) (129). At this time, it appears that there is little concern regarding soy and nipple aspirate in amounts up to two servings per day.

In two other studies of breast tissue, no difference was found between the high and low soy diet groups (38, 39)

Thyroid

Almost everyone who has a reliable source of iodine can safely eat soy without it causing thyroid problems. Although most studies that have measured thyroid function and soy intake have found no problems, a 2011 study (78) of people with subclinical hypothyroidism found an increased rate of progression to overt hypothyroidism. For such people, it might be wise to limit soy. People with overt hypothyroidism who substantially change their soy intake might need to talk to their doctor about adjusting their synthetic thyroid medication.

Introduction

The thyroid gland produces hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4), that regulate metabolism. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), made by the anterior pituitary gland, increases in response to the body’s need for more T3 or T4.

Isoflavones in soy can inhibit thyroid peroxidase (TPO) (77), an enzyme involved in the synthesis of the thyroid hormones. This mostly happens when someone is deficient in iodine. If left unchecked, this can lead to hypothyroidism and even an enlarged thyroid gland, known as a goiter.

Reviews

In their 2006 review article, Messina and Redmond write (77):

The preponderance of evidence from clinical trials involving healthy adult men and women indicates that neither soy protein nor isoflavones adversely affect thyroid function. As noted the adverse effects reported by one Japanese study [Ishizuki Thyroid Clinic, (67)] are biologically implausible and contrast with the results of 13 other trials. Thus, despite their ability to [inhibit thyroid peroxidase] in vitro and in vivo in rodents, isoflavones do not appear to cause thyroid hormone abnormalities in euthyroid individuals [people with genetically normal thyroid function]. Nevertheless, research aimed at determining whether further depression of thyroid function in individuals with pre-existing subclinical hypothyroidism occurs in response to soy intake is warranted.

Messina and Redmond also point out that soy might interfere with the absorption of synthetic thyroid hormone.

In their 2002 review article, Doerge and Sheehan write (76):

Iodine deficiency is an emerging concern in elderly Americans. Consumption of iodized salt, the primary source of dietary iodine, may decrease with the desire or need to reduce the possible hypertensive effects of high salt intake. The data presented here suggest that elderly women need to be aware of, and monitored for, possible thyroid problems resulting from consumption of soy products. Those post-menopausal women who consume large amounts of soy products may be at higher risk.

Primary Studies

Hull Royal Infirmary, United Kingdom (2011)

This study was done on people who were found to have subclinical hypothyroidism (defined as a TSH value between 5 and 15 mU/liter; normal range is 0.5–4.7 mU/liter) (78).

It was a randomized, double-blinded, crossover study of 60 patients (8 men, 52 women), ages 44–70. The two study periods lasted eight weeks each and consisted of 30 g of soy protein that provided either 2 mg of isoflavones or 16 mg of isoflavones with an eight week washout period in between. An isoflavone intake of 2 mg per day is typical of Western populations, while 16 mg is typical of vegetarian intakes. The subjects had normal iodine levels ( >100 µg/liter).

Six patients, all women, developed overt hypothyroidism after the 16 mg isoflavone phase, while none did after the 2 mg phase. The overt hypothyroidism appeared permanent, with no reversal on isoflavone withdrawal, although to determine this fully they should have discontinued thyroid hormone for a period, which they did not do. The underlying cause is unclear, although acceleration of an underlying autoimmune process is a possibility.

The authors state:

In a prospective study looking into the spontaneous course of hypothyroidism in females, the rate of progression of subclinical hypothyroidism to overt hypothyroidism was 5.6%/yr. Extrapolating the data from this 8-wk study to give a rate of progression per year, it was expected that in our study population, 3.36 cases per year would progress to overt hypothyroidism; this translates into a standardized rate ratio of 3.6 (95% confidence interval = 1.9, 6.2), i.e. supplementation with 16 mg phytoestrogen caused a 3-fold increase in progression from subclinical to overt hypothyroidism in this study….There are currently no data to guide what effect longer periods of exposure would have on thyroid function, with the possibilities that more overt hypothyroidism may result, stabilization may occur, or thyroid function could improve with thyroid adaptation to the phytoestrogen load.

The authors conclude that female vegetarian patients with subclinical hypothyroidism may need careful monitoring.

The good news was that the high isoflavone phase produced a significant reduction of blood pressure, c-reactive protein, and insulin resistance. It should also be noted that this is just one study which is rarely enough to be considered conclusive.

Secondary Studies

The studies below, while not primarily looking at thyroid function, did measure it while studying other effects of soy.

Studies showing no effects on thyroid hormone were:

• 54 mg/day genistein in post-menopausal women for 3 years (13)
• 76 mg/day isoflavones in post-menopausal women for 2 years (75)
• 10 mg/day of equol in post-menopausal women for 1 year (63)
• 90 mg/day isoflavones on post-menopausal women for 6 months (60)
• 65 mg/day isoflavones in men and women for 3 months (69)
• 48 mg/day isoflavones on children for 2 months (66)
• 62 mg isoflavones on men for 2 months (68)
• 54 mg/day isoflavones on post-menopausal women for 7 weeks (71)

A study on soy’s effects on protein synthesis by the liver showed no effect on thyroid binding globulin (TBG) after 118 mg/day isoflavones for 3 months in post-menopausal women (72).

The following studies showed minor changes in thyroid hormone but were not believed to be of physiological significance:

• 90 mg/day isoflavones in post-menopausal women for 6 months (73)
• 132 mg/day isoflavones in post-menopausal women for 3 months (70)
• 128 mg/day isoflavones in pre- and post-menopausal women for 3 months (61)
• 40 mg/day isoflavones in pre-menopausal women for 1 month (74)
• 140 g/day soybeans in female students for 1 week (65)

One study of 50 g/day soy protein in men for 4 weeks found that T4 changed from baseline, but did not differ from the placebo group (64).

Finally, one study found that 30 g/day of pickled soybeans didn’t change thyroid hormone levels but caused a goiter in half the subjects.

Infant Formula

Both the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) consider soy formula safe for term infants.

The AAP specifically recommends soy formula for those seeking a vegetarian or vegan diet for term infants (147).

In 2009, the NIH’s National Toxicology Program Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction convened an expert panel to evaluate soy infant formula. After evaluating the available scientific evidence, the panel concluded that there was “minimal concern for adverse developmental effects in infants fed soy infant formula” (145). In 2010, the NIH’s National Toxicology Program Board of Scientific Counselors voted in support of the conclusion (146).

Research on Soy Formula and Health

A variety of research has studied the health of people fed soy formula as infants. The research includes:

• Three case studies of infants with goiter in 1960, before soy formula was fortified with iodine (80).
• A 1990 case-control study found a correlation between receiving soy formula in infancy and autoimmune thyroid disease diagnosis in childhood (81), but the study didn’t control for allergies which is often a reason for children receiving soy formula and which also may lead to autoimmune thyroid disease (82).
• A 2001 study of young men and women who had been given soy infant formula found no reason to be concerned about thyroid or reproductive function, although the women had a slightly longer duration and greater discomfort of menstrual bleeding (95).
• A 2008 cross-sectional study found a correlation between female toddlers who received soy formula and more breast bud tissue at age 2 (93). While this is a concern, the most relevant study to date, a 2008 case-control study, found no increased risk of breast cancer for girls fed soy formula (144).
• A 2008 cross-sectional study found girls on soy formula had a higher maturation index which the authors thought should be examined in future studies (94).
• A 2009 cross-sectional study found no difference in sex hormone levels in children fed soy formula (83).
• A 2010 study found that women who had received soy formula as infants had a higher rate of non-cancerous uterine fibroids, but the finding wasn’t statistically significant (RR = 1.25; 95% CI, 0.971-1.61; 92).
• A 2017 cross-sectional study found boys who were fed soy formula did not experience suppressed testosterone as infants (as had been previously reported in animal studies) (141).
• A 2018 longitudinal study found girls exclusively fed soy formula in infancy had greater vaginal and uterine maturation indices, but no difference in breast bud diameter or hormone concentrations compared to those receiving cow-based formula (142).
• A 2019 case-control study found no association between the use of soy formula and age of onset of puberty (143).
• A 2019 retrospective study on African-American women found that women fed soy formula as infants were more likely to report moderate/severe menstrual discomfort/pain with ‘most periods’, but not with ‘every period’, during early adulthood compared to women never fed soy formula (139). Mark Messina, PhD, of the Soy Nutrition Institute, says there’s not enough research on the impact of soy formula consumption on menstrual pain later in life to draw any meaningful conclusions (140).

Feeding Pre-Term Infants

The American Academy of Pediatrics does not recommend soy infant formulas for pre-term infants due to studies showing poor bone growth in pre-term infants on soy formula compared to cow’s milk formulas designed for pre-term infants.

There’s also a concern that aluminum levels in soy formula could be a problem for infants with undeveloped kidneys but not for full-term infants.

Feeding Infants with Thyroid Issues

According to a 2008 paper by the American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Nutrition:

Consumption of soy products by infants with congenital hypothyroidism complicates their management, as evidenced by a prolonged increase in thyroid-stimulating hormone when compared with infants not fed soy formula; the authors of 2 studies suggested closer monitoring and a possible need for an increased dose of levothyroxine (84).

Cognition

Summary: There have been 12 short-term clinical trials looking at the impact of soy on cognition, and all have shown soy to be helpful or neutral. A longitudinal study found tempeh to be associated with improved cognition. Three reports from longitudinal studies have associated tofu with reduced cognition in some groups, but increased cognition in another group, and neutral in others. This is likely due to confounding. Based on the research to date, there should be little concern about eating soy, including tofu, with regards to cognitive decline.

Long-term Studies

In the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study (2000) of older Asian men living in Hawaii, food intake was collected once at baseline (1965–1967) and one more time during 1971–1974. Cognitive function was then measured in 1991–1993, and brain size was measured in those who had died (2).

Midlife tofu consumption by itself (controlling for no other factors) explained 2.3% of the variation in mental cognition scores. A linear regression model that included only age, education and history of a prior stroke explained 27.8% of the variation. After controlling for these three most important factors, midlife tofu consumption remained statistically significant even though it then explained only 0.8% of the variance in test scores. Despite this, the researchers state that, “In this study population, 20% to 25% of the burden of cognitive impairment appears attributable to midlife tofu consumption — an effect size of enormous public health importance…”

Upon autopsy of those who died, smaller brain size was associated with increased tofu consumption.

In an accompanying editorial, Grodstein et al, write (41):

Clearly, these results are interesting, although must be considered preliminary; relatively few subjects consumed tofu at high levels, and the confidence intervals around the estimates of effect presented are wide, indicating the limited precision of these results… Importantly, we do not know if tofu itself was the cause of these numerous indications of accelerated brain aging or if tofu is merely a marker for some other unfavorable exposure. For example, in this population, men with higher tofu intake (and more traditional diets) likely came from poorer immigrant families and perhaps experienced more childhood privation, which may be related to their brain development and subsequent cognitive function.

In 2010, Hogervorst et al, reference this study (42):

People of low socioeconomic status were hypothesized to eat more soy (as an animal protein substitute because it is cheaper). However, low socioeconomic status in itself is associated with a faster cognitive decline and an earlier onset of dementia and could thus have mediated the association between high soy intake and low memory function.

The Kame Project (King County, Washington, 2000) is a prospective study of Japanese Americans aged 65 years or older living in King County, WA (53). Cognitive ability was measured at the beginning and after two years. Tofu consumption was categorized as low (<1/wk), moderate (1–2/wk), and high (3+/wk). At the beginning of the study, among women taking estrogen replacement therapy, high tofu consumption was associated with lower cognitive scores. No other statistically significant differences were found at baseline, and all analyses were adjusted for age, education, and language spoken. Upon testing at two years, tofu consumption was not associated with the rate of cognitive change either among men, women, or women on estrogen replacement therapy.

The Tofu and Tempeh Study, a 2008 study from Indonesia found that among people aged 52 to 98, tempeh intake was associated with slightly better memory scores (9). The authors suggested that tempeh might be good for memory because the bacteria used in the tempeh starter, Rhizopus oligosporus, produce folate which is thought to protect memory.

However, increased tofu consumption was linked to slightly worse memory scores (-0.18, p = .05). The authors state that, “According to the Departments of Public Health at the Universities of Jakarta and Yogyakarta, formaldehyde is often added to tofu (but not tempeh) to preserve its freshness. Formaldehyde can induce oxidative damage to the frontal cortex and hippocampal tissue….” As of January 2011, the Indonesian government was still trying to end the practice of adding formaldehyde to tofu (43).

In 2010, this research group published a follow-up paper (42). It was a cross-sectional study of 151 men and women (most from the previous report) over the age of 56. Both immediate and delayed recall were tested. Median and mean tempeh and tofu consumption was seven times a week, ranging from never to three times a day. Before adjusting for age, sex, and education, tempeh and tofu were associated with better immediate recall; after adjusting, the associations were no longer significant. In the group younger than 73 years, higher tofu consumption was significantly associated with better immediate recall even after the adjustments.

There are a lot of theories as to why this follow-up study had opposite findings of their first study (one being that the older people who were eating more tofu had died), but it is an indication that tofu, itself, does not cause cognitive decline.

In a 1993 study of California Seventh-day Adventists (SDA) ages 65 and over, those who hadn’t eaten meat in the previous 30 years were about one-third as likely to develop dementia as their regular meat-eating counterparts (58). While soy intake was not compared to dementia rates, another study (59) of California Seventh-day Adventists showed SDA vegetarians to eat an average of 3.5 servings of meat substitutes (which usually contain soy) per week compared to only 1.4 servings by their meat-eating counterparts.

Clinical Trials

There has been a plethora of short-term (lasting one week to a year) clinical trials on soy and cognitive function. Four studies found that soy had benefits compared to the placebo (44, 45, 48, 49). One study found no decline in cognitive function in the soy group, whereas the placebo declined (47). Four studies found a benefit to soy but there was no placebo group (50, 54, 55, 56). Three studies found no benefit of soy (51, 52, 57). No study found the placebo group to do better than the soy group on any measurement of cognitive function.

Conclusion

The short-term clinical trials have been very favorable towards soy and cognitive function. The one long-term study that assessed a non-tofu soy food, tempeh, found a protective effect in the first analysis, and no effect after adjustments in a follow-up.

The main concern appears to be tofu which has recently been prepared with formaldehyde in Indonesia and was a food traditionally eaten by poorer people with less education. The research can be summarized as follows:

• The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study found tofu consumption during the 1960s and 1970s was associated with cognitive decline in the 1990s (2).
• An Indonesian study of older people found that tofu was associated with slightly lower memory scores, possibly due to formaldehyde in processing (9). A follow-up report found that tofu was linked with better memory scores among the younger subjects (42).
• The Kame Project, a study of older Japanese Americans found that at baseline, and only among women taking estrogen replacement therapy, tofu consumption was associated with lower cognitive scores. Testing again two years later, this association was no longer there (53).

It seems safe to assume that tofu does not have an appreciable effect on cognitive function and that these associations are due to confounding variables. A study on non-Asians and tofu consumption (where it cannot be linked to lower socioeconomic status or formaldehyde) could shed more light on this subject.

Hexane

There is little evidence to determine whether the hexane residues in some processed soy meats are safe over the long term, though hexane processing can be harmful to workers and the environment. It seems prudent to buy most of your processed soy from companies that do not use hexane extraction.

Hexane is sometimes used by the soy industry to separate the oil from the protein in soybeans. The protein is then used for soy meats and other products that contain soy protein extract. This process inevitably leaves some hexane residues in the products.

The Cornucopia Institute is a public interest group that promotes organic agriculture. In November 2010, they released a report Toxic Chemicals: Banned In Organics But Common in “Natural” Food Production. The report makes a persuasive argument that hexane use is dangerous to workers and the environment (the evaluation of which is beyond the scope of this article), and for those reasons alone it seems better to use soy meats processed without hexane. Luckily, there are soy meats available that do not use hexane such as Tofurky, Field Roast, Wildwood, Amy’s Kitchen, and some (though not all) Boca products (link). Foods certified as “USDA Organic” are produced without using hexane extraction.

There is not much evidence that the amount of hexane found in most veggie burgers is harmful. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has not set an upper limit on how much hexane residue can be in foods, whereas the European Union prohibits hexane residues greater than “30 mg/kg [30 ppm] in the defatted soya products as sold to the final consumer” (118). The Cornucopia Institute found some soy ingredients to have hexane levels as high as 21 ppm, but did not provide details on the average hexane levels they found in any final food products.

More info on hexane in soyfoods:

• Hexane in Soy Food – Berkeley Wellness • May 01, 2012
• Do Veggie Burgers Contain Hexane? – Shereen Jegtvig, MS • Updated Feb 07, 2014

Mineral Absorption

Eating a few servings of soy per day is unlikely to result in calcium, zinc, iron, or magnesium deficiency. Soybeans contain phytic acid, also known as phytate, which can inhibit the absorption of calcium, zinc, iron, and possibly magnesium. Many whole plant foods contain phytate, but soy has more than most. Hidvegi and Lasztity estimated the phytate content per 100 grams of food (97) in Table 2.

While phytic acid has a bad reputation, it has some benefits. In their 2002 review, Minerals and Phytic Acid Interactions: Is It a Real Problem for Human Nutrition?, Lopez et al point out that phytates can prevent lipid peroxidation, iron oxidation of colorectal tissue, and calcium-based kidney stones (98).

Calcium

Three studies on adults (99, 100, 101) have shown calcium to be absorbed from soy at rates comparable to that of cow’s milk. One study on Chinese boys found calcium from soy milk to be absorbed at 43% while calcium from cow’s milk was absorbed at 64% (109, see Table 3).

A study from Victoria University (2010) found calcium absorption to be the same from fortified soymilk as from cow’s milk in post-menopausal women (101).

A study from Purdue University (2005) found that the calcium in soymilk fortified with calcium carbonate was absorbed at the same rate (21%) as the calcium in cow’s milk (100). The calcium in soymilk fortified with tricalcium phosphate was absorbed at a lower rate of 18%.

In a study from Creighton University (1991), soybeans, grown in different mediums to produce a different phytate content, were used to determine calcium absorption (99). They found that calcium from high-phytate soybeans was absorbed at 31%, while calcium from low-phytate soybeans was absorbed at 41%. Calcium from milk was absorbed at 38%.

Soy and Bones

Although a 2010 (3) and 2008 (4) meta-analysis each found that soy isoflavone supplements of 82 and 90 mg/day, respectively, increases bone mineral density in menopausal women, a more recent, clinical trial found little benefit from 80 or 120 mg of soy isoflavone supplements for three years (6).

There is a plethora of evidence that soy does not harm bones; including a cross-sectional study from the Chinese University of Hong Kong (2003) which found that women who ate the most soy (10 g/day of soy protein or more) had greater bone mineral density than those in the lower intake groups (104).

Zinc

Studies have shown that the zinc in soy is absorbed at a rate of about 10–20%.

A 2004 study from Switzerland showed that removing the phytic acid from a wheat and soy flour increased zinc absorption from 22.8% to 33.6% in healthy adults (108). Copper absorption was unaffected.

Table 2 shows results from a 2003 absorption study on Chinese boys (109). Zinc absorption rates were lower from soymilk than cow’s milk.

A study from University of Gothenburg in Sweden (1987), found that adding milk to a meal with meat sauce reduced zinc absorption from 25.2% to 20.7% (110). Adding soy to a meal with meat sauce decreased zinc absorption to 18-20%. Meals of only soy had zinc absorption rates of 14-21%.

Iron

Iron from plant foods is generally not absorbed as well as iron from meat. But a type of iron in soy, ferritin iron, is absorbed at about 30% among people with low iron stores, and this is a high rate of absorption. Ferritin iron makes up a large percentage of the iron found in soybeans; up to 90% (127). Some soy foods have a decent amount of iron, including extra firm tofu (3.35 mg per 1/2 cup), edamame (1.75 mg per 1/2 cup), and soy nuts (1.7 mg per 1/4 cup). There is no reason to worry that moderate amounts of soy might cause iron deficiency.

Also note that adding vitamin C to a meal (in a dose of about 100 mg) has been shown to significantly increase absorption of the iron in plant foods in numerous studies. I found no studies on vitamin C’s effect on iron absorption from soy foods in adults, but two showed that it significantly increased iron absorption from soy formula in infants (114, 115).

Magnesium

I found no studies looking at the effect of soy on magnesium absorption. Phytates have been shown to bind magnesium, so it would be no surprise if the magnesium in soy is absorbed at a lower rate than from other foods. Leafy green vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and seeds are the best sources of magnesium and people eating such foods while adding a few servings of soy per day should not be in danger of magnesium deficiency.

Fermentation

In their 2007 review, Hotz and Gibson say that fermentation can reduce the amount of zinc and iron-binding phytates in soybeans and should, therefore, increase the amount of zinc and iron absorbed from fermented soy foods such as tempeh and miso (111).

The effects of fermenting soy foods on rates of zinc absorption have not been tested in humans, but one study from the University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa (1990) found that the iron in tempeh was absorbed better than from other soy foods, at a rate of 10 – 15%; the iron from tofu was absorbed at a range of about 3 to 8% (113). Again, absorption rates of plant iron vary greatly according to someone’s current iron status and the amount of iron in the food, which can account for a large range of absorption amounts.

Feminizing Characteristics

It requires twelve servings of soy (and probably much more for most men) to have any sort of noticeable feminizing effects. While one epidemiological study raised concerns about soy and sperm quantity (14), two clinical studies have shown no effects of soy on sperm quality or quantity (15, 126).

In 2011, there was a case report of a 19-year old vegan male who was eating a great deal of soy foods – enough to provide 360 mg of isoflavones per day, the equivalent of about 14 servings (10). He also had type 1 diabetes. After eating this way for a year, he developed low free testosterone levels and erectile dysfunction. After ceasing the soy products (and the vegan diet), his symptoms normalized within a year. There was no reason why he needed to stop being vegan rather than just cutting way down on, or eliminating for a period, soy foods.

A 2008 case report described a 60 year old man who developed gynecomastia (the enlargement of the mammary glands in a male) after drinking 3 quarts of soymilk (the equivalent of 12 servings) a day (123). His breasts returned to normal after discontinuing the soymilk.

Gynecomastia – Male Breasts

In contrast to the case report above, in a 2004 study, 20 men with prostate cancer were given either 450 mg (amount found in about 18 servings of soy) or 900 mg (amount found in about 36 servings of soy) of isoflavones for 84 days (124). Two of the men, who had no gynecomastia at baseline, receiving the 900 mg developed mild cases of gynecomastia. One man was taking a drug that likely increased the gynecomastia. Two men had hot flashes probably related to the isoflavones. Given the very large amounts of isoflavones they were taking, this study should allay fears of feminization in men rather than cause any sort of alarm.

Sperm Health

A 2008 epidemiological study found that men attending a fertility clinic had lower sperm concentrations if they ate more soy, but the amount of soy was very small (≥ .3 servings/day) and part of the difference could be explained by a higher ejaculate volume (14). Two more recent clinical trials using 62 mg/day of isoflavones for two months and 480 mg/day of isoflavones for three months found no difference in sperm count, concentration, or motility.

Review

Messina sums up the rest of the literature on soy and feminizing characteristics in men in his 2010 review (122):

In contrast to the results of some rodent studies, findings from a recently published metaanalysis and subsequently published studies show that neither isoflavone supplements nor isoflavone-rich soy affect total or free testosterone (T) levels. Similarly, there is essentially no evidence from the nine identified clinical studies that isoflavone exposure affects circulating estrogen levels in men. Clinical evidence also indicates that isoflavones have no effect on sperm or semen parameters, although only three intervention studies were identified and none were longer than 3 months in duration. Finally, findings from animal studies suggesting that isoflavones increase the risk of erectile dysfunction are not applicable to men, because of differences in isoflavone metabolism between rodents and humans and the excessively high amount of isoflavones to which the animals were exposed. The intervention data indicate that isoflavones do not exert feminizing effects on men at intake levels equal to and even considerably higher than are typical for Asian males.

Endometrium

A 2009 meta-analysis of five retrospective and two prospective studies found that participants with a higher soy intake (roughly one serving per day) had a reduced risk for endometrial cancer and ovarian cancer, when compared with lower soy intakes. Two other studies of three years in duration found that soy isoflavones in the amounts of 70, 80, and 120 mg/day did not have a negative effect on the endometrium. However, one study using 90 mg of isoflavones for five years (equivalent to 3.5 servings of soy per day) did result in cell growth (though non-cancerous) of the endometrium among some subjects. Women at risk for endometrial cancer might use caution in eating more than one serving per day of soy.

Ovarian Function

A 2010 review by Wendy N. Jefferson of the Laboratory of Reproductive and Developmental Toxicology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, summarized the literature on soy and ovarian function (117):

For the most part, the studies conducted to date suggest that a diet containing lower levels of soy, e.g. 1–2 servings of soy/d, as part of a well-balanced diet should not pose harmful effects on the function of the ovary as it relates to ovulation. These levels are similar to that found in a traditional Asian diet (10–25 mg/day isoflavones) and even up to 50 mg/day isoflavones has little impact on serum circulating levels of hormones involved in reproduction. Although the levels of phytoestrogens typically found in soy foods pose minimal risk in the adult female, the female reproductive system is dependent on hormones for proper function and phytoestrogens at very high levels can interfere with this process.

Additionally, a 2009 meta-analysis of five retrospective and two prospective studies found that participants with a higher soy intake (roughly one serving per day) had a reduced risk for endometrial cancer and ovarian cancer, when compared with lower soy intakes (119).

Fertility

A 2014 cross-sectional study from Adventist Health Study-2 found that a higher intake of isoflavones was associated with an increased rate of never becoming pregnant and of being childless (136). Among the highest soy intake category of > 50 mg/day (average of 79 mg/day or about three servings), compared to those in the lowest intake category (average of 3.7 mg/day), there was a 15% higher rate of being childless (1.15, 1.02-1.29). This finding was adjusted for age, educational level, and marital status.

The authors did not distinguish between involuntary and voluntary childlessness.

This issue warrants further attention, but given that it is a cross-sectional study and the findings were rather weak, it seems unlikely that isoflavones cause childlessness.

Glutamate

Isolated soy protein is rumored by some to have unusually large amounts of MSG (it doesn’t), and MSG, in turn, is rumored to be an excitotoxin (for practical purposes, it’s not) that will destroy brain cells. I cover this topic in some blog posts at JackNorrisRD.com (link).

Hypospadias

Two studies have examined soy intake and risk of hypospadias. Neither found a statically significant risk with more soy intake. It appears that factors other than soy are the most likely the cause of hypospadias, although more studies are warranted.

Hypospadias is a male birth defect in which the opening of the urethra (the tube through which urine passes) is not located at the tip of the penis as it should be. The milder forms of hypospadias, which are by far the largest number of cases, are relatively easy to repair which usually results in a penis with normal or near-normal function and appearance, and no future problems (135).

A 2004 case-control study from the Netherlands (133) found no link between maternal soy intake and an increased risk of hypospadias. Women who had a soy protein intake of 20 g or more had the exact same risk as those eating no soy (1.0, 0.5-2.2).

A 2000 UK prospective study, of 7,928 boys born to mothers taking part in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood, found 51 cases of hypospadias (134). There was a trend of more soy meats and soy milk being associated with an increased risk for hypospadias, but the findings were not statistically significant, nor were the results adjusted for any confounding variables.

Two of three studies have found an increased risk of hypospadias if the mothers were vegetarian; more information can be found in Hypospadias and Vegetarian Diets.

Last updated March 2011

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70. Jayagopal V, Albertazzi P, Kilpatrick ES, Howarth EM, Jennings PE, Hepburn DA, Atkin SL. Beneficial effects of soy phytoestrogen intake in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2002 Oct;25(10):1709-14.

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72. Teede HJ, Dalais FS, McGrath BP. Dietary soy containing phytoestrogens does not have detectable estrogenic effects on hepatic protein synthesis in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Mar;79(3):396-401.

73. Persky VW, Turyk ME, Wang L, Freels S, Chatterton R Jr, Barnes S, Erdman J Jr, Sepkovic DW, Bradlow HL, Potter S. Effect of soy protein on endogenous hormones in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002 Jan;75(1):145-53.

74. Watanabe S, Terashima K, Sato Y, Arai S, Eboshida A. Effects of isoflavone supplement on healthy women. Biofactors. 2000;12(1-4):233-41.

75. Lydeking-Olsen E, Beck-Jensen JE, Setchell KD, Holm-Jensen T. Soymilk or progesterone for prevention of bone loss–a 2 year randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Nutr. 2004 Aug;43(4):246-57.

76. Doerge DR, Sheehan DM. Goitrogenic and estrogenic activity of soy isoflavones. Environ Health Perspect. 2002 Jun;110 Suppl 3:349-53.

77. Messina M, Redmond G. Effects of soy protein and soybean isoflavones on thyroid function in healthy adults and hypothyroid patients: a review of the relevant literature. Thyroid. 2006;16(3):249 –258.

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116. Messina M, Nagata C, Wu AH. Estimated Asian adult soy protein and isoflavone intakes. Nutr Cancer. 2006;55(1):1-12.

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123. Martinez J, Lewi JE. An unusual case of gynecomastia associated with soy product consumption. Endocr Pract 2008;14:415–8. (Abstract)

124. Fischer L, Mahoney C, Jeffcoat AR, Koch MA, Thomas BE, Valentine JL, et al. Clinical characteristics and pharmacokinetics of purified soy isoflavones: multiple-dose administration to men with prostate neoplasia. Nutr Cancer 2004;48(2):160–70.

125. Cassidy A, Hooper L. Phytoestrogens and cardiovascular disease. J Br Menopause Soc. 2006 Jun;12(2):49-56.

126. Messina M, Watanabe S, Setchell KD. Report on the 8th International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention and Treatment. J Nutr. 2009 Apr;139(4):796S-802S.

127. Murray-Kolb LE, Welch R, Theil EC, Beard JL. Women with low iron stores absorb iron from soybeans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Jan;77(1):180-4.

129. Maskarinec G, Morimoto Y, Conroy SM, Pagano IS, Franke AA. The Volume of Nipple Aspirate Fluid Is Not Affected by 6 Months of Treatment with Soy Foods in Premenopausal Women. J Nutr. 2011 Feb 16. (Epub ahead of print)

130. Setchell KD, Cole SJ. Method of defining equol-producer status and its frequency among vegetarians. J Nutr. 2006 Aug;136(8):2188-93.

131. Anupongsanugool E, Teekachunhatean S, Rojanasthien N, Pongsatha S, Sangdee C. Pharmacokinetics of isoflavones, daidzein and genistein, after ingestion of soy beverage compared with soy extract capsules in postmenopausal Thai women. BMC Clin Pharmacol. 2005 Mar 3;5(1):2.

132. Setchell KD, Faughnan MS, Avades T, Zimmer-Nechemias L, Brown NM, Wolfe BE, Brashear WT, Desai P, Oldfield MF, Botting NP, Cassidy A. Comparing the pharmacokinetics of daidzein and genistein with the use of 13C-labeled tracers in premenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 Feb;77(2):411-9.

133. Pierik FH, Burdorf A, Deddens JA, Juttmann RE, Weber RF. Maternal and paternal risk factors for cryptorchidism and hypospadias: a case-control study in newborn boys. Environ Health Perspect. 2004 Nov;112(15):1570-6.

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136. Jacobsen BK, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Knutsen SF, Fan J, Oda K, Fraser GE. Soy isoflavone intake and the likelihood of ever becoming a mother: the Adventist Health Study-2. Int J Womens Health. 2014 Apr 5;6:377-84. doi: 10.2147/IJWH.S57137. eCollection 2014.

137. Nachvak SM, Moradi S, Anjom-Shoae J, Rahmani J, Nasiri M, Maleki V, Sadeghi O. Soy, Soy Isoflavones, and Protein Intake in Relation to Mortality from All Causes, Cancers, and Cardiovascular Diseases: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2019 Sep;119(9):1483-1500.e17.

139. Upson K, Adgent MA, Wegienka G, Baird DD. Soy-based infant formula feeding and menstrual pain in a cohort of women aged 23-35 years. Hum Reprod. 2019 Jan 1;34(1):148-154.(Abstract)

140. Messina M. Soy Formula and Menstrual Pain: A Look at the Evidence. Soy Nutrition Institute. Published January 3, 2020.

141. Fang X, Wang L, Wu C et al. Sex Hormones, Gonadotropins, and Sex Hormone-binding Globulin in Infants Fed Breast Milk, Cow Milk Formula, or Soy Formula. Sci Rep. 2017;7:4332.

142. Adgent MA, Umbach DM, Zemel BS, et al. A Longitudinal Study of Estrogen-Responsive Tissues and Hormone Concentrations in Infants Fed Soy Formula. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2018;103(5):1899–1909.

143. Sinai T, Ben-Avraham S, Guelmann-Mizrahi I, et al. Consumption of soy-based infant formula is not associated with early onset of puberty. Eur J Nutr. 2019;58(2):681–687.

144. Boucher BA, Cotterchio M, Kreiger N, Thompson LU. Soy Formula and Breast Cancer Risk, Epidemiology. 2008;19(1):165-166.

145. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Expert Panel Evaluation of Soy Infant Formula Meeting Summary & Expert Panel Conclusions. Published 2009. Reviewed November 18, 2019.

146. Mamta B. NTP Tackles Soy Infant Formula Safety. NIEHS Environmental Factor. Published 2010.

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Reviewed

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This post was originally published on veganhealth.org.

विषय

• स्तन कैंसर
• डिमेंशिया
• नवजात बच्चों के लिए फार्मूला
• जनाना गुण
• थायराइड
• सोयाबीन के लाभ
• जानकारी के स्रोत

स्तन कैंसर

सोया में आइसोफ्लेवोन्स होते हैं, जिनमें एस्ट्रोजन रिसेप्टर्स से जुड़ने की क्षमता होती है। सोया के एक बार के आहार में लगभग 25 मिलीग्राम आइसोफ्लेवोन्स होते हैं। 

सोयाबीन और स्तन कैंसर पर केस-कंट्रोल अध्ययन उन लोगों के लिए आम तौर पर उत्साहजनक रहे हैं जिनके आहार में सोया शामिल रहा है। लगभग आधे लोगों में पाया गया कि सोया के उपभोग से उनमें स्तन कैंसर के खतरे में कमी आई है और बाकी आधे लोगों में कोई प्रभाव नहीं दिखा है। 

संभावित अध्ययन, जिनमें आमतौर पर केस-कंट्रोल अध्ययनों की तुलना में उच्च स्तर का प्रमाण होता है, भी बहुत सकारात्मक रहे हैं। सोया का अधिक सेवन करने वाली आबादी (प्रतिदिन लगभग एक से दो बार सामान्य से अधिक सेवन की मात्रा है) पर किए गए छह अध्ययनों में से, सिंगापुर चीनी स्वास्थ्य अध्ययन (1), शंघाई महिला अध्ययन (2, 3), और जापान पब्लिक हेल्थ सेंटर अध्ययन (4) में पाया गया कि सोया का अधिक सेवन स्वास्थ्य के जोखिम को कम करता है। जापान सहयोगी समूह अध्ययन (5) और जापान जीवन अवधि अध्ययन (6) में भी इससे स्वास्थ्य के प्रति जोखिम बढ़ाने का कोई संबंध नहीं पाया गया।

ऑक्सफोर्ड के अध्ययन यूरोपियन प्रॉस्पेक्टिव इन्वेस्टिगेशन इनटू कैंसर (7), जिसमें बड़ी संख्या में शाकाहारी शामिल थे, ने भी सोया के प्रयोग का स्वास्थ्य जोखिम बढ़ने से कोई संबंध नहीं पाया। यूरोपीय अध्ययन में संबंध की कमी के बारे में, कुछ लोगों ने अनुमान लगाया है कि सोया से लाभ प्राप्त करने के लिए, किशोरावस्था में स्तनों के विकास के दौरान सोया का उपभोग करना आवश्यक है, जबकि पश्चिमी शाकाहारी अक्सर वयस्क होने पर अपने आहार में सोया शामिल करते हैं। 

स्तन कैंसर से पीड़ित महिलाओं के लिए, जिनमें एस्ट्रोजन के संपर्क में आने से विकसित होने वाले ट्यूमर (जिसे एस्ट्रोजन रिसेप्टर पॉजिटिव कहा जाता है) वाली महिलाएं भी शामिल हैं, हाल ही में प्रकाशित महिलाओं के स्वस्थ भोजन और जीवन अध्ययन (8) के लेखक लिखते हैं:

हमारा अध्ययन तीसरा महामारी विज्ञान अध्ययन है जिसमें स्तन कैंसर के ईलाज में सोया खाद्य पदार्थों के कोई प्रतिकूल प्रभाव नहीं देखा गया है। ये अध्ययन, जो जातीय संरचना (दो अमेरिका से और एक चीन से) और सोया उपभोग के स्तर और प्रकार के अनुसार भिन्न हैं, आवश्यक महामारी विज्ञान संबंधी प्रमाण प्रदान करते हैं कि चिकित्सकों को अब स्तन कैंसर से पीड़ित महिलाओं को सोयाबीन के सेवन के विरुद्ध सलाह देने की आवश्यकता नहीं है।

समूह के अध्ययनों के 2019 डोज-रेस्पॉन्स मेटा-विश्लेषण में पाया गया कि सोया आइसोफ्लेवोन के सेवन में 10 मिलीग्राम/दिन की वृद्धि स्तन कैंसर की मृत्यु दर में 9% की कमी के साथ जुड़ी थी, और सोया प्रोटीन सेवन में 5 ग्राम/दिन की वृद्धि स्तन कैंसर से मृत्यु में 12% की कमी के साथ जुड़ी थी (48)।

डिमेंशिया

2000 के होनोलूलू-एशिया एजिंग अध्ययन ने सोया को कम संज्ञानात्मक कार्य और कम मस्तिष्क संकुचन से जोड़ा। सोया और मानसिक संज्ञानात्मक क्षमता पर शोध की एक विस्तृत समीक्षा यहाँ दी गई है। 

एक सप्ताह से लेकर एक वर्ष तक चलने वाले बारह अल्पकालिक क्लिनिकल ​​परीक्षण हुए हैं। नौ ने सोया को लाभकारी बताया है (9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17), जबकि तीन ने सोया को कोई प्रभाव न डालने वाला बताया है (18, 19, 20)।

महामारी विज्ञान संबंधी अध्ययन (क्लिनिकल ​​परीक्षणों के विपरीत) विशिष्ट आबादी में सोया उपभोग और संज्ञानात्मक क्षमता के पैटर्न की जाँच करते हैं। ऐसे ही एक अध्ययन में टेम्पेह (एक फार्मेटेड सोया खाद्य पदार्थ) को बेहतर संज्ञानात्मक क्षमता से जुड़ा पाया गया (21)। महामारी विज्ञान संबंधी अध्ययनों की तीन रिपोर्टों ने टोफू को कुछ समूहों में कम संज्ञानात्मक क्षमता से जोड़ा है (21, 22, 23), लेकिन एक अन्य समूह में संज्ञानात्मक क्षमता में वृद्धि (24) पाया है, और अन्य में कोई प्रभाव न डालने वाला बताया है (23, 24)। महामारी विज्ञान संबंधी अध्ययनों में टोफू के बारे में हानिकारक निष्कर्ष संभवतः इस तथ्य से उत्पन्न भ्रम के कारण हैं कि एशियाई संस्कृतियों में निम्न आर्थिक स्थिति वाले लोग पारंपरिक रूप से अधिक टोफू खाते रहे हैं, साथ ही यह तथ्य भी कि कुछ इंडोनेशियाई टोफू फॉर्मेल्डिहाइड का उपयोग करके तैयार किए गए हैं।

समग्र रूप से यह शोध चिंता का कोई कारण नहीं बताता।

शिशु फ़ॉर्मूला 

शिशु फ़ॉर्मूला को लेकर चिंता स्वाभाविक है, क्योंकि शिशु अपने आहार का एक बड़ा हिस्सा सोया के रूप में खाते हैं। 

अमेरिकन एकेडमी ऑफ़ पीडियाट्रिक्स और नेशनल टॉक्सिकोलॉजी प्रोग्राम सोया फ़ॉर्मूला को सुरक्षित मानते हैं। 

अब तक का सबसे महत्वपूर्ण अध्ययन, जिसमें शिशुओं वाला सोया फ़ॉर्मूला खाने वाले वयस्कों पर नज़र रखी गई है, यह आश्वासन देता है कि थायरॉइड या प्रजनन क्षमता को लेकर चिंतित होने की कोई ज़रूरत नहीं है (25)।

द बिगिनिंग्स स्टडी, बच्चों के विकास पर सोया फ़ॉर्मूला के प्रभावों की जाँच करने वाला एक सतत अध्ययन है (26)। यह अभी शुरुआती दौर में है और इसमें केवल एक साल के बच्चों पर किए गए अध्ययन के निष्कर्ष शामिल हैं, लेकिन अब तक, जिन बच्चों को गाय का दूध दिया जाता है उनकी तुलना में सोया फ़ॉर्मूला खाने वाले बच्चों के विकास, यौन अंगों या तंत्रिका संबंधी विकास पर कोई नकारात्मक प्रभाव नहीं पाया गया है। 

कुछ शोध बताते हैं कि डीएचए युक्त सोया फ़ॉर्मूला चुनना सबसे अच्छा है, और यह ध्यान रखना ज़रूरी है कि सोया फ़ॉर्मूला समय से पहले जन्मे शिशुओं के लिए नहीं है।

जनाना लक्षण 

इस चिंता के संबंध में, कि सोयाबीन पुरुषों में जनाना लक्षण पैदा कर सकता है, दो केस स्टडीज़ हुई हैं। एक में, प्रतिदिन बारह बार सोया दूध खाने वाले एक पुरुष के स्तन ऊतक बढ़े हुए और संवेदनशील हो गए (27)। दूसरे में, टाइप 1 मधुमेह से पीड़ित एक पुरुष एक साल तक प्रतिदिन 14 बार ज़्यादातर प्रोसेस्ड सोया खाद्य पदार्थ खा रहा था और उसे स्तंभन दोष (28) हो गया, जो सोया बंद करने के बाद सामान्य हो गया। हालाँकि मैं इतना अधिक सोया खाने की सलाह नहीं दूँगा, एक अध्ययन में आइसोफ्लेवोन्स की और भी ज़्यादा मात्रा का इस्तेमाल किया गया और ज़्यादातर पुरुषों में कोई समस्या नहीं पाई गई (29)।

शुक्राणु की मात्रा और गुणवत्ता के संबंध में एक महामारी विज्ञान अध्ययन ने सोया और शुक्राणु की मात्रा (30) के बारे में मामूली चिंताएं जताईं, जबकि दो क्लिनिकल ​​अध्ययनों ने सोया का कोई दुष्प्रभाव नहीं दिखाया है (31, 32)।

थायराइड 

आइसोफ्लेवोन थायराइड हार्मोन के स्तर को प्रभावित कर सकते हैं, खासकर अगर किसी को आयोडीन की कमी हो। 2011 के एक क्लिनिकल ​​परीक्षण में पाया गया कि हल्के हाइपोथायरायडिज्म वाले लोगों में 16 मिलीग्राम/दिन आइसोफ्लेवोन लेने से स्पष्ट हाइपोथायरायडिज्म की ओर बढ़ने की दर में वृद्धि हुई (33)। 

नौ अन्य क्लिनिकल ​​परीक्षणों में, संभवतः स्वस्थ थायराइड वाले लोगों में प्लेसीबो की तुलना में सोया का थायराइड पर कोई प्रभाव नहीं देखा गया (34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42), जबकि शेष पाँच अध्ययनों में छोटे-मोटे बदलाव पाए गए, जिनका कोई शारीरिक महत्व नहीं था (43, 44, 45, 46, 47)। 

हाइपोथायरायडिज्म से पीड़ित लोगों को सोया से कोई समस्या नहीं होनी चाहिए, जब तक उन्हें पर्याप्त आयोडीन मिलता रहे, लेकिन जब तक हम और अधिक नहीं जानते, हल्के हाइपोथायरायडिज्म वाले लोग सुरक्षा के लिए सोया से परहेज कर सकते हैं।

सोया के लाभ 

जैसा कि ऊपर बताया गया है, स्तन कैंसर के जोखिम को कम करने के अलावा, सोया प्रोस्टेट कैंसर को रोकने, एलडीएल कोलेस्ट्रॉल को कम करने और रजोनिवृत्ति के लक्षणों में सुधार लाने में भी लाभकारी है। अधिक जानकारी के लिए कृपया सोया भाग 2—शोध देखें। सोया पर किए गए सभी शोधों को मिलाकर, यह सोचने का कोई कारण नहीं है कि प्रतिदिन दो सर्विंग ज़्यादातर लोगों के लिए हानिकारक हैं, और यह मानने का एक अच्छा कारण है कि सोया कुछ स्वास्थ्य लाभ प्रदान करता है।

References

Last updated April 2011

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This article was first written by Jack Norris at veganhealth.org.

Contents

• Breast Cancer
• Dementia
• Infant Formulas
• Feminizing Characteristics
• Thyroid
• Soy Benefits
• References

Breast Cancer

Soy contains isoflavones, which have the ability to bind to estrogen receptors. There are about 25 mg of isoflavones in one serving of soy.

Case-control studies on soy and breast cancer have been generally encouraging to those with soy in their diets, with about half associating soy with a lower risk for breast cancer and the other half showing no effects.

Prospective studies, which are generally a higher level of evidence than case-control studies, have also been very positive. Of the six studies done on populations with higher soy intakes (about one to two servings per day is the typical upper intake amount), the Singapore Chinese Health Study (1), the Shanghai Women’s Study (2, 3), and the Japan Public Health Center study (4) all found that higher intakes of soy were associated with a reduced risk. The Japan Collaborative Cohort Study (5) and the Japan Life Span Study (6) found no association.

The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer-Oxford (7), which contained a large number of vegetarians, also found no association. Regarding the lack of association in the European study, some have speculated that in order to receive benefits from soy, exposure must occur during adolescence when breasts are developing, while Western vegetarians often add soy to their diets as adults.

As for women with breast cancer, including those with tumors that grow in response to contact with estrogen (known as estrogen receptor positive), the authors of the recently published Women’s Healthy Eating and Living Study (8) write:

Our study is the third epidemiological study to report no adverse effects of soy foods on breast cancer prognosis. These studies, taken together, which vary in ethnic composition (two from the US and one from China) and by level and type of soy consumption, provide the necessary epidemiological evidence that clinicians no longer need to advise against soy consumption for women diagnosed with breast cancer.

A 2019 dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies found that a 10 mg/day increase in soy isoflavone intake was associated with a 9% decreased risk of breast cancer mortality, and a 5 g/day increase in soy protein intake was associated with a 12% reduction in breast cancer death (48).

Also see Soy and Cancer Risk: Our Expert’s Advice from the American Cancer Society.

Dementia

The 2000 Honolulu-Asia Aging Study linked soy with lower cognitive function and brain shrinkage. Here’s a more thorough review of the research on soy and mental cognition.

There’ve been twelve short-term clinical trials lasting one week to a year. Nine show soy to be helpful (9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17), while three have shown soy to be neutral (18, 19, 20).

Epidemiological studies (unlike clinical trials) examine patterns of soy consumption and cognition in specific populations. One such study found tempeh (a fermented soy food) to be associated with improved cognition (21). Three reports from epidemiological studies have associated tofu with reduced cognition in some groups (21, 22, 23), but increased cognition in another group (24), and neutral in others (23, 24). The harmful findings for tofu in the epidemiological studies are likely due to confounding caused by the fact that people of lower economic status have traditionally eaten more tofu in Asian cultures as well as the fact that some Indonesian tofu has been prepared using formaldehyde.

The research as a whole provides little cause for concern.

Infant Formulas

The concern about infant formula is understandable giving that infants will be eating a large portion of their diet as soy.

The American Academy of Pediatrics and the National Toxicology Program considers soy formula safe.

The most important study to date, tracking adults who were fed soy formula as infants, provides assurance that there’s no reason to be concerned about thyroid or reproductive function (25).

The Beginnings Study is an ongoing study examining the effects of formula on child development (26). It’s in its early stages with findings from children only a year old, but to date, no negative effects of soy have been found on growth, sex organs, or neurological development compared to children on cow’s milk formula.

Some research shows that it’s best to choose a soy formula with DHA, and it’s important to note that soy formula isn’t intended for pre-term infants.

Feminizing Characteristics

Regarding the concern that soy could cause feminizing characteristics in men, there have been two case studies. In one, a man eating twelve servings per day of soymilk developed enlarged, sensitive breast tissue (27). In another, a man with type 1 diabetes was eating 14 servings per day of mostly processed soy foods for one year and developed erectile dysfunction (28), which normalized after ceasing the soy. While I would not recommend eating this much soy, one study used even much higher amounts of isoflavones and found no problems for most men (29).

As for sperm quantity and quality, while one epidemiological study raised concerns, albeit minor, about soy and sperm quantity (30), two clinical studies have shown no effects of soy (31, 32).

Thyroid

Isoflavones can affect thyroid hormone levels—especially if someone has iodine deficiency. A 2011 clinical trial found that 16 mg/day of isoflavones in people with mild hypothyroidism appeared to cause an increased rate of advancing to overt hypothyroidism (33).

Nine other clinical trials showed no effect of soy on the thyroid compared to placebo in people with presumably healthy thyroids (34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42), while the remaining five studies found small changes, all without physiological significance (43, 44, 45, 46, 47).

People without hypothyroidism should have no problems with soy as long as they get enough iodine, but until we know more, people with mild hypothyroidism might want to avoid soy just to be safe.

Soy Benefits

In addition to reducing the risk for breast cancer as mentioned above, soy also provides benefits for preventing prostate cancer, lowering LDL cholesterol, and improving menopausal symptoms. Please see Soy Part 2—Research for more details.

When you add up all the research on soy, there’s no reason to think that two servings per day are harmful to most people, and good reason to think soy provides some health benefits.

References

Last updated April 2011

1. Butler LM, Wu AH, Wang R, Koh WP, Yuan JM, Yu MC. A vegetable-fruit-soy dietary pattern protects against breast cancer among postmenopausal Singapore Chinese women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Apr;91(4):1013-9.

2. Wu AH, Koh WP, Wang R, Lee HP, Yu MC (2008) Soy intake and breast cancer risk in Singapore Chinese health study. Br J Cancer 99(1):196–200.

3. Lee SA, Shu XO, Li H, Yang G, Cai H, Wen W, Ji BT, Gao J, Gao YT, Zheng W. Adolescent and adult soy food intake and breast cancer risk: results from the Shanghai Women’s Health Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Jun;89(6):1920-6.

4. Yamamoto S, Sobue T, Kobayashi M, Sasaki S, Tsugane S; Japan Public Health Center-Based Prospective Study on Cancer Cardiovascular Diseases Group. Soy, isoflavones, and breast cancer risk in Japan. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003 Jun 18;95(12):906-13.

5. Nishio K, Niwa Y, Toyoshima H, Tamakoshi K, Kondo T, Yatsuya H, Yamamoto A, Suzuki S, Tokudome S, Lin Y, Wakai K, Hamajima N, Tamakoshi A. Consumption of soy foods and the risk of breast cancer: findings from the Japan Collaborative Cohort (JACC) Study. Cancer Causes Control. 2007 Oct;18(8):801-8.

6. Key TJ, Sharp GB, Appleby PN, Beral V, Goodman MT, Soda M, Mabuchi K. Soya foods and breast cancer risk: a prospective study in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan. Br J Cancer. 1999 Dec;81(7):1248-56.

7. Travis RC, Allen NE, Appleby PN, Spencer EA, Roddam AW, Key TJ. A prospective study of vegetarianism and isoflavone intake in relation to breast cancer risk in British women. Int J Cancer. 2008 Feb 1;122(3):705-10.

8. Caan BJ, Natarajan L, Parker BA, Gold EB, Thomson CA, Newman VA, Rock CL, Pu M, Al-Delaimy WK, Pierce JP. Soy Food Consumption and Breast Cancer Prognosis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011 Feb 25.

9. File SE, Jarrett N, Fluck E, Duffy R, Casey K, Wiseman H. Eating soya improves human memory. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2001; 157:430-6.

10. Duffy R, Wiseman H, File SE. Improved cognitive function in postmenopausal women after 12 weeks of consumption of a soya extract containing isoflavones. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2003 Jun;75(3):721-9.

11. Thorp AA, Sinn N, Buckley JD, Coates AM, Howe PR. Soya isoflavone supplementation enhances spatial working memory in men. Br J Nutr. 2009 Nov;102(9):1348-54.

12. Kritz-Silverstein D, Von Mühlen D, Barrett-Connor E, Bressel MA. Isoflavones and cognitive function in older women: the Soy and Postmenopausal Health In Aging (SOPHIA) Study. Menopause. 2003 May-Jun;10(3):196-202.

13. Fournier LR, Ryan Borchers TA, Robison LM, Wiediger M, Park JS, Chew BP, McGuire MK, Sclar DA, Skaer TL, Beerman KA. The effects of soy milk and isoflavone supplements on cognitive performance in healthy, postmenopausal women. J Nutr Health Aging. 2007 Mar-Apr;11(2):155-64.

14. Islam F, Sparkes C, Roodenrys S, Astheimer L. Short-term changes in endogenous estrogen levels and consumption of soy isoflavones affect working and verbal memory in young adult females. Nutr Neurosci. 2008 Dec;11(6):251-62.

15. Celec P, Ostatnikova D, Hodosy J, Putz Z, Kúdela M. Increased one week soybean consumption affects spatial abilities but not sex hormone status in men. Int J Food Sci Nutr. 2007 Sep;58(6):424-8.

16. Ostatníková D, Celec P, Hodosy J, Hampl R, Putz Z, Kúdela M. Short-term soybean intake and its effect on steroid sex hormones and cognitive abilities. Fertil Steril. 2007 Dec;88(6):1632-6.

17. Celec P, Ostatníková D, Cagánová M, Zuchová S, Hodosy J, Putz Z, Bernadic M, Kúdela M. Endocrine and cognitive effects of short-time soybean consumption in women. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 2005;59(2):62-6.

18. Kreijkamp-Kaspers, S., Kok, L., Grobbee, D.E., de Haan, E.H.F., Aleman, A., Lampe, J.W., van der Schouw, Y.T. Effect of soy protein containing isoflavones on cognitive function, bone mineral density, and plasma lipids in postmenopausal women: A randomized controlled trial, JAMA. 2004;292:65-74.

19. Ho SC, Chan AS, Ho YP, So EK, Sham A, Zee B, Woo JL. Effects of soy isoflavone supplementation on cognitive function in Chinese postmenopausal women: a double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Menopause. 2007 May-Jun;14(3 Pt 1):489-99.

20. Pilsáková L, Riecanský I, Ostatníková D, Jagla F. Missing evidence for the effect one-week phytoestrogen-rich diet on mental rotation in two dimensions. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2009 Mar;30(1):125-30.

21. Hogervorst E, Sadjimim T, Yesufu A, Kreager P, Rahardjo TB. High tofu intake is associated with worse memory in elderly Indonesian men and women. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2008;26(1):50-7. (Epub 2008 Jun 27)

22. White LR, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, Masaki K, Hardman J, Nelson J, Davis D, Markesbery W. Brain aging and midlife tofu consumption. J Am Coll Nutr. 2000 Apr;19(2):242-55.

23. Rice MM, Graves AN, McCurry SM, Larson EB. Tofu consumption and cognition in older Japanese American men and women. J Nutr 2000(Suppl):676S. (Published only as abstract)

24. Hogervorst E, Mursjid F, Priandini D, Setyawan H, Ismael RI, Bandelow S, Rahardjo TB. Borobudur revisited: Soy consumption may be associated with better recall in younger, but not in older, rural Indonesian elderly. Brain Res. 2010 Oct 28. (Epub ahead of print)

25. Strom BL, Schinnar R, Ziegler EE, Barnhart KT, Sammel MD, Macones GA, Stallings VA, Drulis JM, Nelson SE, Hanson SA. Exposure to soy-based formula in infancy and endocrinological and reproductive outcomes in young adulthood. JAMA. 2001 Aug 15;286(7):807-14.

26. Badger TM, Gilchrist JM, Pivik RT, Andres A, Shankar K, Chen JR, Ronis MJ. The health implications of soy infant formula. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 May;89(5):1668S-1672S.

27. Martinez J, Lewi JE. An unusual case of gynecomastia associated with soy product consumption. Endocr Pract 2008;14:415–8. (Abstract)

28. Siepmann T, Roofeh J, Kiefer FW, Edelson DG. Hypogonadism and erectile dysfunction associated with soy product consumption. Nutrition. 2011 Feb 23.

29. Fischer L, Mahoney C, Jeffcoat AR, Koch MA, Thomas BE, Valentine JL, et al. Clinical characteristics and pharmacokinetics of purified soy isoflavones: multiple-dose administration to men with prostate neoplasia. Nutr Cancer 2004;48(2):160–70.

30. Chavarro JE, Toth TL, Sadio SM, Hauser R. Soy food and isoflavone intake in relation to semen quality parameters among men from an infertility clinic. Hum Reprod. 2008 Nov;23(11):2584-90.

31. Beaton LK, McVeigh BL, Dillingham BL, Lampe JW, Duncan AM. Soy protein isolates of varying isoflavone content do not adversely affect semen quality in healthy young men. Fertil Steril. 2010 Oct;94(5):1717-22.

32. Messina M, Watanabe S, Setchell KD. Report on the 8th International Symposium on the Role of Soy in Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention and Treatment. J Nutr. 2009 Apr;139(4):796S-802S.

33. Sathyapalan T, Manuchehri AM, Thatcher NJ, Rigby AS, Chapman T, Kilpatrick ES, Atkin SL. The Effect of Soy Phytoestrogen Supplementation on Thyroid Status and Cardiovascular Risk Markers in Patients with Subclinical Hypothyroidism: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Crossover Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011 Feb 16. (Epub ahead of print)

34. USDA Database for the Isoflavone Content of Selected Foods Release 2.0. 2008.

35. Bruce B, Messina M, Spiller GA. Isoflavone supplements do not affect thyroid function in iodine-replete postmenopausal women. J Med Food. 2003 Winter;6(4):309-16.

36. Tousen Y, Ezaki J, Fujii Y, Ueno T, Nishimuta M, Ishimi Y. Natural S-equol decreases bone resorption in postmenopausal, non-equol-producing Japanese women: a pilot randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Menopause. 2011 Jan 19. (Epub ahead of print)

37. Ham JO, Chapman KM, Essex-Sorlie D, Bakhit RM, Prabhudesai M, Winter L, Erdman JW, Potter S. Endocrinological response to soy protein and fiber in mildly hypercholesterolemic men. Nutr Res 1993; 13:873-884.

38. Zung A, Shachar S, Zadik Z, Kerem Z. Soy-derived isoflavones treatment in children with hypercholesterolemia: a pilot study. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Jan-Feb;23(1-2):133-41.

39. Dillingham BL, McVeigh BL, Lampe JW, Duncan AM. Soy protein isolates of varied isoflavone content do not influence serum thyroid hormones in healthy young men. Thyroid. 2007 Feb;17(2):131-7.

40. Mackey R, Ekangaki A, Eden JA. The effects of soy protein in women and men with elevated plasma lipids. Biofactors. 2000;12(1-4):251-7.

41. Roughead ZK, Hunt JR, Johnson LK, Badger TM, Lykken GI. Controlled substitution of soy protein for meat protein: effects on calcium retention, bone, and cardiovascular health indices in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Jan;90(1):181-9.

42. Lydeking-Olsen E, Beck-Jensen JE, Setchell KD, Holm-Jensen T. Soymilk or progesterone for prevention of bone loss–a 2 year randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Eur J Nutr. 2004 Aug;43(4):246-57.

43. Duncan AM, Merz BE, Xu X, Nagel TC, Phipps WR, Kurzer MS. Soy isoflavones exert modest hormonal effects in premenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999 Jan;84(1):192-7.

44. Hampl R, Ostatnikova D, Celec P, Putz Z, Lapcík O, Matucha P. Short-term effect of soy consumption on thyroid hormone levels and correlation with phytoestrogen level in healthy subjects. Endocr Regul. 2008 Jun;42(2-3):53-61.

45. Jayagopal V, Albertazzi P, Kilpatrick ES, Howarth EM, Jennings PE, Hepburn DA, Atkin SL. Beneficial effects of soy phytoestrogen intake in postmenopausal women with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2002 Oct;25(10):1709-14.

46. Persky VW, Turyk ME, Wang L, Freels S, Chatterton R Jr, Barnes S, Erdman J Jr, Sepkovic DW, Bradlow HL, Potter S. Effect of soy protein on endogenous hormones in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002 Jan;75(1):145-53.

47. Watanabe S, Terashima K, Sato Y, Arai S, Eboshida A. Effects of isoflavone supplement on healthy women. Biofactors. 2000;12(1-4):233-41.

48. Nachvak SM, Moradi S, Anjom-Shoae J, Rahmani J, Nasiri M, Maleki V, Sadeghi O. Soy, Soy Isoflavones, and Protein Intake in Relation to Mortality from All Causes, Cancers, and Cardiovascular Diseases: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. J Acad Nutr Diet. 2019 Sep;119(9):1483-1500.e17.

This article was first written by Jack Norris at veganhealth.org.

• Part 1
• Part 2

Part One

I think everybody has that capacity to stop and think and say, ‘If I knew you, I wouldn’t eat you.’ And in some ways, it really is that simple.

–Tom Regan, PhD, Professor of Philosophy, 1938-2017

Why love one but eat the other?

Check out our video about speciesism which sums up why so many people are vegan (0:59):

While most people are aware that farm animals are treated inhumanely, the details can be hard to bear.

Here’s a video of some animal advocates trying to comfort pigs on their way to slaughter—it’s not gory, but gives a glimpse into the suffering these animals must endure (2:05):

In some very rare but lucky cases, a pig might escape on the way to the slaughterhouse, sometimes due to transport truck accidents. Pigcasso is one of the lucky few who escaped and now paints (1:33):

Dairy cows are sociable and highly sensitive animals forced to endure a heartbreaking life no mother should ever have to experience. To produce milk for humans to drink, dairy cows are treated like milk machines—repeatedly impregnated against their will until they are considered “dry” and sent to slaughter or left to die on the roads.

Because a mother cow’s milk is given to humans, the baby calf is separated from her which causes both a great deal of stress. Mother cows call for their calves for days or weeks. Here’s a video of a mother cow chasing the truck as her baby is driven away (0:47):

In addition to forming bonds with their young, buffaloes are sensitive animals who can form bonds with other animals and humans, too. They’re widely exploited throughout the country for dairy and leather. Not only are they denied the basic freedom of movement but they’re also kept in highly unhygienic conditions.

Watch how a buffalo is fighting for her baby in this video (1:24):

In the egg industry, the male chicks are killed at birth. Some are gassed and some are macerated (ground up while still alive). Flocks of egg-laying hens are kept in warehouse-like sheds for up to two years before the entire flock’s egg production starts to decline and they’re all sent to slaughter.

Gita, a rescued hen, is now living a wonderful life at Peepal Farm (2:18):

Although animals tend to be much more intelligent than humans give them credit for, intelligence isn’t what matters—the ability to suffer and the desire to live is why we shouldn’t eat animals.

The question is not ‘Can they reason?’, nor ‘Can they talk?’, but ‘Can they suffer?’

–Jeremy Bentham, 1748–1832, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation

A Cycle of Violence

By supporting the killing of animals for food, we uphold a cycle of violence that doesn’t end with the animal victims.

Animal agriculture isn’t just an enemy to animals, but it’s also a notoriously dangerous place for workers—where profit is placed above safety. Slaughterhouses in India employ thousands of workers who are forced to work in unhygienic conditions and are denied basic rights such as sick leave and weekly time off. Most of them don’t receive protective gear and can be seen working with their bare hands and in sandals or barefoot. Many illegal meat shops also employ children under the age of 14.

Below, workers are pictured slaughtering chicken inside the meat market of Kolkata.

Being Vegan Makes a Difference!

The decision that has led millions of people to stop eating other animals is not rooted in arid adherence to diet or dogma, but in the desire to eliminate the kinds of experiences that using animals for food confers upon beings with feelings.

–Karen Davis, PhD, 1944-2023

Although most people still eat animal products out of convenience, the number of vegans is growing. While it’s easier to go with the flow, courageous people take a stand for what they believe in, especially standing up for victims of abuse. By going vegan, you’re removing your support from an industry that causes so much misery.

And you will make a difference.

Part Two

Why love one and eat the other?

We love dogs and cats while farmed animals such as cows, pigs, and chickens are seen as objects to be turned into food, leading to enormous amounts of unnecessary suffering.

But watch what happens when some bacon lovers meet baby pigs (1:56):

Although most calves are of no use to the dairy industry and are left to die within weeks of being born. “Hanumanji” was luckily saved by our friends at Peepal Farm (1:53):

Here’s a heartwarming story about Tofu, a cow who is flourishing at Peepal Farm’s sanctuary after being rescued from the street where she was left with her mother to die (5:41):

Henrietta is a chicken who was rescued from a factory farm during COVID. She recovered from her early life of suffering and brought joy to her human family at a time when they needed it most (4:51):

Chickens raised for meat are kept by the thousands in large warehouses, packed together, breathing the ammonia from their waste. The tips of their sensitive beaks are cut off to prevent them from pecking each other under such crowded conditions.

Watch Shrimp, a rescued rooster, take care of his injured friend, Basil, who was rescued from a factory farm (3:15):

While we wish it wasn’t true, the scientific evidence suggests that fish feel pain and can suffer. Large commercial nets scoop up everything in their path leading not only to the deaths of fish but all sorts of animals.

Watch rescuers free two seals from fishing lines that have tangled them together (3:44):

Some fish are dragged up from the bottom of the ocean and their bodies cannot withstand the difference in pressure leading to their eyes popping out and bladders bursting.

A Cycle of Violence

This brutal system also treats slaughterhouse workers as objects to be discarded.

National Public Radio’s 2016 exposé, Working the Chain, Slaughterhouse Workers Face Lifelong Injuries, describes how each worker must do thousands of repetitions per day with few breaks, causing a wide range of muscle and nerve injuries.

They make low wages and are fired when their injuries prevent them from working.

Worker advocate Gloria Sarmiento says, “The speed of the line is really fast. The supervisors are yelling all the time…They are treating us like animals.”

Being Vegan Makes a Difference!

Several polls indicate that the number of vegans in India is growing.

By joining the growing movement of people who oppose speciesism, you’ll reduce the demand for killing animals. As more people join us, we’ll reach a tipping point at which millions of animals will be spared.

What’s Inside:

Part 1: A curated list of essential vegan Maharashtrian dishes, from flavorful rice preparations to delightful snacks and desserts.

Part 2: A 7-day meal plan, making it easy to enjoy these dishes throughout the week.

Note: A plant-based diet can help reduce your risk of chronic diseases like heart disease and type 2 diabetes. According to the American Heart Association, plant-forward diets, full of vegetables, legumes, and nuts, support heart health and overall well-being.

Part 1: A Flavorful Maharashtrian Vegan Feast Awaits!

Rice Dishes:

• Vangi Bhat: A traditional rice dish made with roasted brinjal (eggplant), spices, coconut, tamarind, and jaggery. Vegan-friendly with a spicy kick.
• Tamarind Rice (Chidvey or Ukadiche Rice): Tangy and spicy, made with tamarind, mustard seeds, curry leaves, and various spices, garnished with roasted peanuts or sesame seeds.
• Masale Bhat: Fragrant rice cooked with vegetables, spices, and coconut, often paired with vegan raita or chutney.
• Koshimbir Rice: A refreshing rice salad with mixed vegetables, lemon, mustard seeds, and curry leaves.

Snacks:

• Batata Vada: A classic Maharashtrian snack prepared with spicy mashed potatoes wrapped in chickpea flour and deep-fried, usually served with chutneys.
• Sabudana Khichdi: Made from soaked sago, peanuts, potatoes, and mild spices, this is often enjoyed as a fasting dish.
• Kothimbir Vadi: Savory steamed snack made from chickpea flour and coriander leaves, shallow-fried to perfection.
• Chivda: A crunchy, savory mixture of flattened rice, peanuts, dry coconut, and spices.
  

Desserts:

• Coconut Ladoo: A quick and easy dessert made from desiccated coconut and jaggery, rolled into small balls.
• Basundi (Vegan Version): A creamy dessert traditionally made from condensed milk, but veganized with coconut or almond milk, flavored with cardamom and saffron.
• Modak: Sweet dumplings made from rice flour, filled with coconut, jaggery, and cardamom. A traditional treat during Ganesh Chaturthi.
• Shira: Semolina-based dessert flavored with sugar, cardamom, and saffron, made vegan with oil or coconut oil instead of ghee.
  

Legume Dishes:

• Methi Thepla with Moong Daal: Flatbread made with fenugreek leaves and served with moong dal (yellow mung bean curry).
• Vaal Curry: A curry made with vaal (field beans), cooked with onions, tomatoes, and spices like ginger, garlic, turmeric, and red chili powder.
• Kadhi (Vegan Version): Tangy curry made from vegan yogurt or plant-based alternatives, chickpea flour, mustard seeds, curry leaves, and green chilies.
• Usal: Spicy curry made from sprouted legumes like moth beans (matki), garnished with fresh coconut, coriander, and sev (crispy chickpea noodles).
  

Vegetable Curries:

• Bharli Vangi: Stuffed eggplants cooked in a tangy, flavorful gravy made with coconut, peanuts, sesame seeds, and tamarind.
• Alu Wadi: Steamed colocasia leaves filled with gram flour, tamarind, and spices, cooked in a curry made from coconut and peanuts.
• Batata Rassa: Simple yet flavorful curry made with boiled potatoes, tamarind, coconut, and spices, typically enjoyed with chapati or rice.
• Tondli Masala: Cooked with onions, tomatoes, and spices, often flavored with garlic, cumin, and coriander. Sometimes garnished with fresh coconut.

Part 2: Your 7-Day Vegan Maharashtrian Meal Plan

Day 1:

• Breakfast: Sabudana Khichdi (traditional fasting food with a tapioca base)
• Lunch: Vegan Puran Poli (sweet flatbread with chana dal and jaggery filling)
• Dinner: Kadhi Bhaji (coconut-based curry with vegetables)
• Snack: Vegan Samosa (crispy pastry filled with spiced mashed potatoes and peas)

Day 2:

• Breakfast: Poha (flattened rice with mustard seeds, curry leaves, turmeric, peanuts)
• Lunch: Vegan Amti (spicy lentil curry with tamarind and Goda Masala)
• Dinner: Vegan Rassa (spicy vegetable curry)
• Snack: Bhel Puri (puffed rice with chutneys, peanuts, and sev)
  

Day 3:

• Breakfast: Misal Pav (spicy curry with sprouted beans, served with pav)
• Lunch: Vegan Sol Kadhi (refreshing drink made with kokum and coconut milk)
• Dinner: Methi Thepla (savory flatbread)
• Snack: Chivda (crispy poha snack with roasted peanuts and spices)
  

Day 4:

• Breakfast: Thalipeeth (savory multi-grain flatbread)
• Lunch: Pithla Bhakri (gram flour curry served with flatbread)
• Dinner: Vegan Khichdi (rice, lentils, and vegetables)
• Snack: Vegan Dhokla (steamed savory snack)
  

Day 5:

• Breakfast: Upma (semolina porridge with vegetables)
• Lunch: Vegan Varan Bhaat (simple lentil curry with rice)
• Dinner: Aloo Vadi (crispy, deep-fried spiced mashed potatoes)
• Snack: Sev Usal (spicy curry with moth beans, topped with sev)
  

Day 6:

• Breakfast: Kanda Poha (onion poha with mustard seeds and curry leaves)
• Lunch: Batata Bhaji (spiced potato curry)
• Dinner: Vegan Patal Bhaji (vegetable curry with bottle gourd)
• Snack: Ragda Pattice (spiced potato patties with white peas curry)
  

Day 7:

• Breakfast: Batata Vada (deep-fried spiced mashed potatoes)
• Lunch: Koshimbir (vegetable salad with mustard seeds and lemon juice)
• Dinner: Pav Bhaji (spicy vegetable curry served with pav)
• Snack: Aloo Tikki (crispy spiced potato patties)

Enjoy this vibrant and flavorful Maharashtrian vegan feast all week long! For more tasty recipes and meal plans, browse through our blogs and sign up for the 10 Weeks to Vegan email challenge to start your plant-based journey today.

Don’t forget to follow the 10 Weeks to Vegan Instagram and join the Facebook groups to share your favorite Maharashtrian vegan recipes and connect with the community. We can’t wait to see what you create!

Be kind ❀

— Contributed by Astha Gupta

What’s Inside:
Part 1: A curated list of essential vegan Punjabi dishes, from iconic dals to crispy snacks and rich curries.
Part 2: A 7-day meal plan, making it simple to enjoy the flavors of Punjab throughout your week.

A well-rounded plant-based diet can reduce your risk of type 2 diabetes and heart disease. According to the American Heart Association, plant-forward diets packed with vegetables, legumes, and whole grains can boost heart health and overall wellness.

Ready to get started on this flavorful journey? Let’s go!

Part 1: A Flavorful Punjabi Vegan Feast Awaits!

Rice Dishes:

• Chole Rice: A classic Punjabi combination of spicy chickpeas served with steamed rice.
• Saffron Pulao: Aromatic rice infused with saffron, peas, and a mild blend of spices.
• Masala Rice: Rice cooked with seasonal veggies, spices, and vegan butter, a perfect side to any curry.
• Rajma Chawal: A comforting dish made with kidney beans cooked in a spiced tomato gravy, served with steamed basmati rice.

Snacks:

• Aloo Tikki: Crispy mashed potato patties flavored with cumin and coriander, served with tangy tamarind chutney.
• Chana Chaat: A refreshing chickpea salad with cucumbers, tomatoes, onions, and a sprinkle of chaat masala.
• Samosa: A crunchy pastry filled with spiced potatoes and peas, often paired with mint chutney.
  

Curries & Dals:

• Dal Makhani: Traditionally made with butter and cream, this veganized version uses coconut cream and plant-based butter for a rich, creamy consistency.
• Punjabi Kadhi Pakora: A spiced yogurt-based curry with crispy chickpea flour dumplings. Replace dairy yogurt with soy, peanut, or coconut yogurt for a vegan twist.
• Baingan Bharta: Smoky roasted eggplant mashed and cooked with tomatoes, onions, and spices, comforting and flavorful!
  

Vegetable Curries:

• Aloo Gobi: Classic potato and cauliflower curry spiced with turmeric, cumin, and coriander.
• Tandoori Vegetables: Vegetables marinated in a tangy, spiced yogurt substitute (like soy yogurt) and roasted in the oven for that authentic tandoor flavor.
• Sarson da Saag: A traditional mustard greens curry, spiced with garlic, ginger, and green chilies, served with vegan makki di roti.
  

Breads:

• Vegan Naan: Soft, fluffy naan made without dairy, served warm with your favorite curry.
• Makki di Roti: Cornmeal flatbread, traditionally paired with sarson da saag, and made vegan by skipping the butter.

[Also read: Make Vegan Naan at Home]

Desserts:

• Gajar Halwa: A warm, sweet dessert made with grated carrots, coconut milk, and cardamom.
• Lassi: A cooling yogurt drink made with soy or coconut yogurt, spiced with cardamom and a hint of saffron.
• Suji Halwa: A rich semolina-based dessert flavored with cardamom, raisins, and nuts. Veganized with coconut oil.

[Also read: Oil-Free Gajar Halwa Recipe]

Part 2: Your 7-Day Vegan Punjabi Meal Plan

Day 1:

• Breakfast: Aloo Paratha with Vegan Yogurt
  A classic Punjabi flatbread stuffed with spiced mashed potatoes, served with cooling vegan yogurt for added protein and probiotics.
• Lunch: Rajma Chawal
  Hearty and filling kidney beans cooked in a spiced tomato gravy, served with basmati rice. This is a classic Punjabi meal, packed with plant-based protein and fiber.
• Dinner: Baingan Bharta
  Roasted and mashed eggplant cooked with onions, tomatoes, and spices for a rich, smoky flavor. Served with vegan naan or roti.
• Snack: Chana Chaat
  A light and refreshing chickpea salad with onions, tomatoes, cucumbers, and tangy spices, perfect as a snack to balance the richness of the main meals.
  

Day 2:

• Breakfast: Masala Oats with Vegan Raita
  Hearty oats cooked with spices, vegetables, and herbs for a savory, protein-packed breakfast. Served with a cooling vegan yogurt-based raita.
• Lunch: Tamarind Rice (Punjabi Style)
  A tangy and spicy rice dish made with tamarind, mustard seeds, curry leaves, and a blend of Punjabi spices, offering the perfect balance of flavors. Garnished with roasted peanuts or sesame seeds for crunch.
• Dinner: Vegan Tandoori Vegetables
  Marinated vegetables in a spiced yogurt alternative, roasted to perfection for a smoky, grilled flavor. Serve with quinoa or whole wheat roti for a balanced meal.
• Snack: Vegan Samosa
  Crispy pockets filled with spiced potatoes and peas, served with a tangy tamarind chutney.
  

Day 3:

• Breakfast: Chole Bhature
  A filling breakfast option with spicy chickpeas paired with large, fluffy bhaturas (fried flatbreads). Perfect for a high-energy start to the day.
• Lunch: Masale Bhat
  Fragrant rice cooked with a mix of seasonal vegetables, spices, and a hint of coconut, making it a satisfying one-pot meal.
• Dinner: Sarson da Saag with Makki di Roti
  Mustard greens cooked with garlic, ginger, and spices, served with cornbread (makki di roti). This is a comforting, hearty Punjabi meal that’s rich in iron and fiber.
• Snack: Papdi Chaat
  A tangy and spicy snack made from crisp papdis (fried dough wafers), topped with chickpeas, potatoes, yogurt, tamarind chutney, and chaat masala. It’s refreshing and light, perfect for a midday snack.
  

Day 4:

• Breakfast: Vegan Moong Dal Cheela
  High-protein lentil pancakes made from ground moong dal, served with green chutney and vegan yogurt for a satisfying breakfast.
• Lunch: Vegan Puran Poli
  A vegan version of the traditional sweet flatbread stuffed with chana dal and jaggery, served with a side of spiced vegetables or a refreshing salad.
• Dinner: Lauki Curry with Chapati
  A simple, nourishing curry made with bottle gourd and spices, served with whole wheat chapati. A light yet filling dinner option.
• Snack: Chivda
  A crunchy and savory snack made from flattened rice, peanuts, and spices—perfect for munching in the evening.
  

Day 5:

• Breakfast: Thalipeeth with Vegan Raita
  A multi-grain flatbread loaded with vegetables and spices, served with cooling vegan raita for added texture and flavor.
• Lunch: Vegan Amti
  A tangy and spicy lentil curry made with toor dal and seasoned with a rich spice mix. Served with steamed rice for a wholesome, filling meal.
• Dinner: Aloo Gobi
  A hearty curry made with potatoes and cauliflower, spiced with cumin, coriander, and turmeric, served with chapati or vegan naan.
• Snack: Aloo Tikki with Tamarind Chutney
  Crispy spiced potato patties served with tangy tamarind chutney. A satisfying and flavorful snack to round out the meal.
  

Day 6:

• Breakfast: Upma
  A savory porridge made from semolina (rava), sautéed with vegetables like peas, carrots, and green beans, makes it a wholesome, filling breakfast.
• Lunch: Vegan Varan Bhaat
  A simple and comforting dish made with toor dal (yellow lentils) served with steamed rice and tempered with mustard seeds and curry leaves.
• Dinner: Vegan Khichdi
  A comforting one-pot dish made with rice, lentils, and vegetables, cooked with mild spices for a soothing, nutrient-packed dinner.
• Snack: Ragda Pattice
  Crispy potato patties topped with white peas curry (ragda), tamarind chutney, and crispy sev, a classic street food snack with a spicy twist.
  

Day 7:

• Breakfast: Poha with Peanuts and Lemon
  Flattened rice cooked with mustard seeds, curry leaves, turmeric, and peanuts, garnished with fresh coriander and a squeeze of lemon juice for a zesty breakfast.
• Lunch: Kadhhi Pakora
  A vegan version of the traditional kadhi, made with soy or coconut yogurt, and served with steamed rice. A filling and comforting dish.
• Dinner: Tofu Tikka Masala
  Tofu cubes marinated in a spiced yogurt alternative, grilled, and served in a rich tomato-based curry sauce. Pair with basmati rice or roti for a complete meal.
• Snack: Dhokla
  A light, fluffy steamed snack made from chickpea flour, spiced with mustard seeds and curry leaves. Serve with chutney for an added burst of flavor.
  

There you go! A full week of delicious, plant-powered Punjabi flavors that will have your taste buds dancing with joy.

For more tasty recipes and meal plans, browse through our blogs and sign up for the 10 Weeks to Vegan email challenge to start your plant-based journey today. Don’t forget to follow the 10 Weeks to Vegan Instagram and join our Facebook group to share your favorite Punjabi vegan recipes and connect with the community. We can’t wait to see what you create!

Be kind ❀

— Contributed by Meenal Rajapet

But what if these celebrations could be even more meaningful by extending kindness and compassion to all living beings? This year, why not create new traditions that honor life in all its forms, while preserving the deliciousness of your favorite festive dishes?

Here’s how you can celebrate Indian festivals with love and compassion, by making plant-based versions of traditional dishes.

Why Choose Vegan Festival Meals?

• Compassion: Enjoying cruelty-free dishes ensures your celebrations don’t come at the expense of innocent animals.
• Health: Plant-based meals can be lighter, nutrient-rich, and better for your overall well-being.
• Environmental Impact: Choosing plant-based foods reduces your carbon and water footprints, contributing positively to the planet.

Popular Indian Festivals & Plant-Based Recipes

Each festival comes with its own culinary delights. Here’s how you can veganize your favorite festive meals:

Navratri
Choose vegan options for fasting dishes and festive meals that align with your values.

Diwali
From vegan laddoos to dairy-free kheer, enjoy all your festive favorites while being kind to animals.

Holi
Celebrate with treats like Coconut Jaggery Gujiya, Nut Milk Thandai, Malpua, and more!

Christmas
Celebrate the season with cookies, plum cake, and festive favorites that bring joy to all, without harming any living being.

Eid-ul-Fitr
Treat yourself to cruelty-free versions of traditional delicacies like Sevaiyan, Biryani, and more.

Onam
Reimagine your Onam Sadhya with plant-based versions of Kerala classics.

Pongal
Enjoy dairy-free Pongal and plant-based sweets that celebrate the harvest season with kindness.

Ganesh Chaturthi
Prepare vegan Modaks and other sweets as an offering that respects all living beings.

Quick Tips for Veganizing Traditional Recipes

• Swap dairy milk with almond, cashew, or coconut milk.
• Replace ghee with vegan butter or coconut oil.
• Use chickpea flour or flaxseed as an egg substitute in sweets and baked goods.
• Try cashew or peanut curd for curd-based dishes.

Make Compassion Part of Your Celebration!

Celebrating Indian festivals the vegan way means honoring tradition without compromising on flavor or kindness. Ready to take the plunge? Check out our recipes for each festival and start creating beautiful memories rooted in compassion.

Looking for more recipe inspiration and support? Join our Facebook community and follow us on Instagram!

Stay kind, stay festive!

Stuffed Bell Peppers — Festive and Filling

Ingredients

• 4 large bell peppers (red or green)
• 1 cup cooked rice or quinoa
• 1/2 cup cooked kidney beans or chickpeas
• 1/2 cup corn
• 1 onion (chopped)
• 2 tomatoes (chopped)
• 2 cloves garlic (minced)
• 1/2 tsp cumin powder
• 1/2 tsp smoked paprika
• Salt and pepper to taste
• 2 tbsp oil

Method

1. Slice the tops off the bell peppers and remove seeds.
2. Heat oil, sauté onion and garlic. Add tomatoes, spices, corn, beans, and rice.
3. Cook for 5–6 minutes. Season well.
4. Stuff the bell peppers and bake at 180°C (350°F) for 20–25 minutes.

Vegetable Cutlets — A Familiar Favorite

Ingredients

• 2 medium potatoes (boiled and mashed)
• 1/2 cup mixed vegetables (carrot, beans, peas – boiled and finely chopped)
• 1/2 cup breadcrumbs
• 1 tsp ginger-garlic paste
• 1/2 tsp garam masala
• 1/2 tsp red chili powder
• 1 tbsp chopped coriander
• Salt to taste
• Oil for shallow frying

Method

1. In a bowl, combine mashed potatoes, vegetables, breadcrumbs, and spices.
2. Mix well and shape into small patties or cutlets.
3. Heat oil in a pan and shallow fry cutlets on medium heat until golden and crispy on both sides.
4. Serve hot with mint chutney or ketchup.

Creamy Potato Gratin — Comforting Classic

Ingredients

• 4–5 medium potatoes (thinly sliced)
• 1 cup cashew cream or thick almond milk
• 2 garlic cloves (minced)
• 1 tbsp nutritional yeast (optional)
• Salt and pepper to taste
• 1 tbsp olive oil
• ¼ cup shredded vegan cheese (optional)

Method

1. Layer sliced potatoes in a greased baking dish.
2. Mix cashew cream with garlic, salt, pepper, and nutritional yeast.
3. Pour over potatoes.
4. Cover with foil and bake at 180°C (350°F) for 30 minutes.
5. Uncover, sprinkle with shredded vegan cheese, and bake for 15 more minutes until golden.

Vegan Butter Cookies — Crisp and Melt-in-the-Mouth

Ingredients

• 1 cup all-purpose flour
• 1/2 cup vegan butter or margarine (room temperature)
• 1/3 cup powdered sugar
• 1/2 tsp vanilla extract
• Pinch of salt

Method

1. Cream vegan butter and sugar together until light and fluffy.
2. Add vanilla and mix well.
3. Add flour and salt. Mix to form a soft dough.
4. Chill the dough for 30 minutes.
5. Preheat oven to 180°C (350°F). Shape dough into small balls or press gently with a fork.
6. Place on a lined baking sheet and bake for 12–15 minutes until lightly golden.
7. Cool completely before serving or storing.

Plum Cake — A Holiday Must-Have

Ingredients

• 1.5 cups all-purpose flour
• 3/4 cup brown sugar
• 1/2 cup oil
• 1/2 cup orange juice
• 1/4 cup warm water
• 1 tbsp vinegar or lemon juice
• 1 tsp baking soda
• 1 tsp cinnamon powder
• 1/2 tsp nutmeg
• 1/2 cup chopped dried fruits (dates, raisins, apricots)
• 1/4 cup chopped nuts (walnuts, almonds)
• Zest of 1 orange

Method

1. Preheat oven to 180°C (350°F). Grease a cake tin.
2. Soak dried fruits in orange juice for 30 minutes.
3. Mix flour, spices, baking soda, and zest in a bowl.
4. In another bowl, whisk oil, sugar, vinegar, and warm water.
5. Combine wet and dry mixtures. Fold in soaked fruits and nuts.
6. Pour into the tin and bake for 30–35 minutes.

Hot Chocolate — Cozy and Creamy

Ingredients

• 2 cups almond or oat milk
• 2 tbsp cocoa powder
• 2 tbsp sugar or maple syrup
• 1/2 tsp vanilla extract
• Pinch of salt

Method

1. Whisk all ingredients in a saucepan.
2. Heat gently until warm and smooth.
3. Serve with a cinnamon stick or whipped coconut cream.

Gingerbread Cookies — Sweet and Spiced

Ingredients

• 2 cups all-purpose flour
• 1/2 cup brown sugar
• 1/3 cup molasses or date syrup
• 1/4 cup oil
• 1/4 cup plant milk
• 1 tsp ginger powder
• 1/2 tsp cinnamon
• 1/4 tsp cloves
• 1/2 tsp baking soda
• Pinch of salt

Method

1. Mix all wet ingredients in a bowl.
2. Add dry ingredients gradually to form a dough.
3. Chill the dough for 30 minutes.
4. Roll and cut into shapes. Bake at 180°C (350°F) for 8–10 minutes.

– Contributed by Meenal Rajapet

Celebrate Christmas with Kindness and Joy

These festive recipes bring holiday magic to your table while honoring compassion. For more ideas, support, and seasonal inspiration, join our Facebook community and follow our Instagram page

Merry Christmas!